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Danfoss is the world's largest manufacturer of radiator thermostats. Over the years, Danfoss has sold more than 300 million radiator thermostats worldwide, saving millions of liters of fuel every day and preventing the environmental damage caused by tons of carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds and other harmful substances. Radiator thermostats pay for themselves in less than two years, and their standard service life of more than 20 years is an excellent opportunity to save money and energy.
Danfoss radiator thermostats are manufactured with built-in and remote sensors to ensure optimal operation; plus a wide range of valves and accessories make up the widest range of our products.
Thermostatic elements RA 2000 series
Thermostatic elements of the RA 2000 series are automatic temperature control devices designed to complete radiator thermostats of the RA type. The radiator thermostat is a direct-acting proportional air temperature controller with a small proportional band, which is currently equipped in heating systems of buildings for various purposes. The RA thermostat consists of two parts:
All thermostatic elements can be combined with any control valve type RA. The clip connection allows for simple and precise attachment of the thermocouple to the valve. The protective casing of thermoelements RA 2920 and RA 2922 prevents their unauthorized dismantling and reconfiguration by unauthorized persons. Specifications radiator thermostats type RA correspond to European standards EN 215–1 and Russian GOST 30815–2002.
Technical characteristics of thermostatic elements of the RA 2000 series
The main device of the thermostatic element is a bellows, which provides proportional control. The thermocouple sensor senses changes in ambient temperature. The bellows and sensor are filled with an easily evaporating liquid and its vapor. The adjusted pressure in the bellows corresponds to its charging temperature. This pressure is balanced by the compression force of the tuning spring. As the air temperature around the sensor increases, some of the liquid evaporates and the vapor pressure in the bellows increases. At the same time, the bellows increases in volume, moving the valve spool towards closing the hole for the flow of coolant into the heating device until an equilibrium is achieved between the spring force and the vapor pressure. When the air temperature drops, the vapors condense and the pressure in the bellows drops, which leads to a decrease in its volume and movement of the valve spool towards the opening to a position at which equilibrium of the system is again established. The vapor fill will always condense in the coldest part of the sensor, usually furthest from the valve body. Therefore, the radiator thermostat will always respond to changes in room temperature without sensing the temperature of the coolant in the supply pipe. However, when the air around the valve does become heated by the heat given off by the piping, the sensor may register a higher temperature than the room temperature. Therefore, to eliminate such influence, it is recommended to install thermostatic elements, usually in a horizontal position. Otherwise, it is necessary to use thermocouples with a remote sensor.
Selecting the thermostatic element type
Thermostatic elements with built-in sensor
When choosing a thermostatic element, you should be guided by the rule: the sensor must always respond to the air temperature in the room.
Thermostatic elements with integrated sensor must always be positioned horizontally so that ambient air can circulate freely around the sensor. They should not be installed in a vertical position, since the thermal effect on the sensor from the valve body and heating system pipe will lead to improper functioning of the thermostat.
Thermostatic elements with remote sensor
Thermostatic elements with a remote sensor should be used if: o the thermoelements are covered with a blind curtain; o the heat flow from the heating system pipelines affects the built-in temperature sensor; o the thermoelement is located in the draft zone; o Vertical installation of the thermoelement is required. The remote sensor of the thermostatic element must be installed on a wall free from furniture and curtains or on a baseboard under a heating device if there are no heating system pipelines there. When installing the sensor, the capillary tube should be pulled out to the required length (maximum 2 m) and secured to the wall using the supplied brackets or a special gun.
RAW series thermostatic elements
Thermostatic elements of the RAW series are automatic temperature control devices designed to complete radiator thermostats of the RA type. The radiator thermostat is a direct-acting proportional air temperature controller with a small proportional band, which is currently equipped in heating systems of buildings for various purposes. The thermostat type RA consists of two parts: a universal thermostatic element of the RAW series and a control valve with pre-set capacity RA-N (for two-pipe heating systems) or RA-G (for a single-pipe system).
The production program for thermostatic elements of the RAW series includes:
Thermostatic elements of the RAW series are equipped with devices for protecting the system from freezing, fixing and limiting the temperature setting. The RAW 5012 is equipped with an ultra-thin 2 m long capillary tube, which is wound inside the sensor housing and connects the remote sensor to the thermostatic element. During installation, the pipe is pulled to the required length. The clip connection allows for simple and precise attachment of the thermocouple to the valve.
Technical characteristics of radiator thermostats with RAW series thermoelements comply with European standards EN 215-1 and Russian GOST 30815-2002.
To prevent unauthorized dismantling, the thermoelement can be fixed to the valve using a special lock (see Accessories).
Technical characteristics of RAW series thermostatic elements
The main device of the thermostatic element is a bellows, which provides proportional control. The thermocouple sensor senses changes in ambient temperature. The bellows and sensor are filled with a special heat-sensitive liquid. The adjusted pressure in the bellows corresponds to its charging temperature. This pressure is balanced by the compression force of the tuning spring. As the air temperature around the sensor increases, the liquid expands and the pressure in the bellows increases. At the same time, the bellows increases in volume, moving the valve spool towards closing the hole for the flow of coolant into the heating device until an equilibrium is achieved between the spring force and the liquid pressure. As the air temperature drops, the liquid begins to compress and the pressure in the bellows drops, which leads to a decrease in its volume and movement of the valve spool towards the opening to a position at which equilibrium of the system is again established. To eliminate the influence of warm air from the heating pipe of the heating device, it is recommended to install thermostatic elements, usually in a horizontal position. Otherwise, it is necessary to use thermocouples with a remote sensor.
Thermostatic elements of the RAW-K series
Thermostatic elements of the RAW-K series are automatic temperature controllers with a small proportional band. RAW-K are designed for installation on thermostat valves from Heimeier, Oventrop or MNG, built into the design of steel panel radiators such as Biasi, Delta, DiaNorm, Diatherm, Ferroli, Henrad, Kaimann, Kermi, Korado, Purmo, Radson, Superia, Stelrad, Veha, Zehnder-Completto Fix. The thermostatic element of the RAW-K series has a liquid sensor with a temperature setting range of 8-28 ° C and is equipped with a device for protecting the heating system from freezing.
The Danfoss company produces 3 modifications of RAW-K series thermoelements:
The RAW-K 5032 is equipped with an ultra-thin 2 m long capillary tube, which is wound inside the remote sensor housing, connecting it to the working bellows of the thermostatic element. During installation, the tube is pulled to the required length. Thermostatic elements of the RAW-K series comply with European standards EN 215-1 and Russian GOST 30815-2002.
Electronic radiator thermostat Living eco
Electronic radiator thermostat Living eco® is a programmable microprocessor controller for maintaining a given air temperature, mainly in residential buildings served by a water heating system. The thermostat is designed for installation on the valves of radiator thermostats instead of traditional thermostatic elements.
Living eco® has programs P0, P1 and P2, which allow you to regulate the room temperature at different times of the day.
The P0 program maintains a constant air temperature throughout the day. Programs P1 and P2, in order to save energy, can reduce the temperature in the room at certain periods of time, which allows you to adapt the operation of the heating system to the lifestyle of the people living in it.
The Living eco® thermostat is supplied complete with adapters for mounting it on the valves Danfoss thermostats, as well as most other manufacturers. Installing and configuring the Living eco® thermostat is easy; there are only three buttons on the panel.
The Living eco® thermostat is equipped with a function open window, which turns off the supply of coolant to the heating device when the air temperature in the room sharply decreases, which reduces heat loss and thereby increases the efficiency of the heating system.
Main characteristics of the thermostat:
Pre-installed programs
The "long absence" function allows you to reduce the temperature in the room when it is not in use. The period of absence and temperature are customizable by the consumer.
The selection of programs and their settings are made in accordance with the instructions supplied with the thermoelement.
TWA series thermoelectric actuators
Thermoelectric mini-actuators of the TWA series are designed for on-off control of various control valves in heating and heating and cooling systems of local ventilation units.
The actuator is equipped with a visual travel indicator that shows whether the valve is in closed or open position.
TWA actuators, depending on the modification, can be used with valves of the RA, RAV8 and VMT series manufactured by Danfoss, as well as with valves from Heimeier, MNG and Oventrop, which have a thread for mounting the actuator M 30 x 1.5. If the actuator is used with other types of valves, the valve must be checked to ensure compatible geometry and proper closure. The supply voltage of the electric drive is 24 or 230 V. The valves can be normally closed in the absence of voltage (NC) and normally open (NO). In addition, the normally closed actuator with 24 V supply voltage is supplied with a limit switch (NC/S).
Thermostat valves with pre-setting RA-N and RA-NCX DN = 15 mm (chrome plated)
Control valves RA-N and RA-NCX are intended for use in two-pipe pump water heating systems.
RA-N is equipped with a built-in device for pre-setting (installation) its throughput within the following ranges:
Valves RA-N and RA-NCX can be combined with all thermostatic elements of the RA, RAW and RAX series, as well as with the TWA-A thermoelectric actuator.
To identify the RA-N and RA-NCX valves, their protective caps are painted red. The protective cap must not be used to block the flow of coolant through the heating appliance. Therefore, the handle (code no. 013G3300) must be used.
Valve bodies are made of pure brass, nickel plated (RA-N) or chrome plated (RA-NCX).
The technical characteristics of the RA-N and RA-NCX valves in combination with thermostatic elements of the RA, RAW and RAX series comply with the European standards EN 215-1 and the Russian GOST 30815-2002, and the connecting thread size complies with the HD 1215 standard (BS 6284 1984). All radiator thermostats manufactured by Danfoss are manufactured in factories certified to ISO 9000 (BS 5750).
To prevent deposits and corrosion, the valves of the RA-N and RA-NCX thermostats should be used in water heating systems where the coolant meets the requirements of the Rules for the technical operation of power plants and networks Russian Federation. In other cases, you must contact Danfoss. It is not recommended to use compositions containing petroleum products (mineral oils) to lubricate valve parts.
Adjustment to the calculated value is carried out easily and accurately without the use of special tools. To do this, perform the following operations:
Pre-setting can be made in the range from "1" to "7" at intervals of 0.5. In position "N" the valve is fully open. Installation on the dark area of the scale should be avoided.
When the thermostatic element is installed, the pre-setting is hidden and thus protected from unauthorized changes.
Thermostat valve with presetting RA-N with press fitting
The RA-N valve is intended for use in two-pipe pump water heating systems with copper or stainless steel pipelines. Special crimping tools are required to connect the valve connection to the pipeline. Valve body appearance and technical characteristics are identical to standard valves RA-N DN = 15 mm. RA-N can be used with all types of thermostatic elements from the RA or RAW series, as well as with specially designed thermostatic elements such as RAX and TWA-A thermoelectric actuator.
The RA-N control valve is equipped with a built-in device for pre-setting (installation) its flow capacity Kv in the range from 0.04 to 0.73 m3/h.
To identify the valves, the protective cap is painted red. The cap should not be used to block the regulated medium. For these purposes, a special metal handle (code number 013G3300) should be used. The valve body is made of nickel-plated DZR brass and the pressure pin is made of stainless steel. The pin does not require lubrication during the entire life of the valve. The gland seal can be replaced without draining the piping system. RA-N should be used in water heating systems where the coolant meets the requirements of the Rules for the technical operation of power plants and networks of the Russian Federation. In other cases, you must contact Danfoss. It is not recommended to use compositions containing petroleum products (mineral oils) to lubricate valve parts.
High capacity thermostat valve RA-G
The thermostatic valve with increased flow rate RA-G is intended for use, as a rule, in single-pipe water heating systems with pump circulation of coolant that meets the requirements of the Rules for the technical operation of power plants and heating networks of the Russian Federation. The valve is not recommended to be used if the coolant contains mineral oil impurities.
The RA-G is equipped with a seal that can be replaced without draining the heating system. The pressure pin in the stuffing box is made of chrome-plated steel and does not require lubrication throughout the life of the valve. All versions of RA-G valves can be combined with any thermostatic elements of the RA series.
RA-G valves are supplied with gray (to identify them) protective caps, which should not be used to block the flow of coolant. Therefore, a special metal service locking handle (code no. 013G3300) must be used.
Set of thermostatic fittings X-traTM for heated towel rails and design radiators.
The X-tra™ thermostatic kit is specially designed for heated towel rails. It consists of a thermostat valve, a thermostatic element and a shut-off valve with drain function. The innovative self-sealing connection of the valves to the radiator is made using one-half inch threads. The valves and thermoelement are available in white, chrome and steel versions and are suitable for most heated towel rails. This set is the perfect complement to a heated towel rail. The attractive and compact design allows you to install the thermostat under the heated towel rail parallel to the wall, eliminating accidental impacts on it.
The range includes two types of thermostats with different control principles:
- RAX, which regulates the room temperature;
- RTX, which detects and regulates the temperature of the water leaving the heated towel rail. Used on heated towel rails and adjustable 5-10°C above room temperature, the RTX thermostat provides a constant temperature for drying towels.
The valve assembly is a body with a double-sided self-sealing fitting, which has two sealing rings: one to seal the connection between the fitting and the heated towel rail, and the second to seal the connection between the fitting and the valve body. The Allen screw serves to provide a seal between the valve body and the fitting. If the O-rings do not fit into the fittings of the heated towel rail, a traditional sealing material is used.
Thermostatic elements (thermal heads) with liquid filling from the RAW-K series are a very popular brand of the Danish company Danfoss. They are manufactured in accordance with European quality standards according to the EN 215-1 standard and do not conflict with domestic GOST standards.
These automatic thermostats with small proportional bands are intended for installation on valves from Heimeier, Oventrop, and MNG. They are suitable for structures various types panel radiators made of steel, namely: Biasi, Diatherm, DiaNorm, Henrad, Ferroli, Kaimann, Korado, Kermi, Purmo, Radson, Stelrad, Superia, Veha, Zehnder-Completto Fix.
Model range of thermoelements of the RAW-K series and its equipment.
Today the company offers the following modifications of thermoelements:RAW-K 5030 with built-in temperature sensor
RAW-K 5032 with a remote sensor for a distance of up to 2 m² and an ultra-thin two-meter capillary tube wound inside its body
RAW-K 5130 with built-in temperature sensor, device for complete valve shutoff.
All these models have a wide range of temperature settings (8 °C – 28 °C) and are equipped with protection of heating systems from freezing.
Along with standard structural elements, the RAW-K series is also equipped with additional accessories in the form of protective rings of different colors, designed to prevent unauthorized dismantling attempts. There is also a set of special tools for installing thermal heads and blocking them, as well as temperature limiters.
Thermostatic elements of the RAW-K series: basic operating principle.
The function of proportional regulation of the temperature of the surrounding air space is performed by the main device of the thermostatic element - the bellows. Its second component, the temperature sensor, senses fluctuations in air temperature. Both of these structural elements are filled with a special heat-sensitive liquid. Thanks to this property, the pressure initially set (calibrated) in the bellows, corresponding to its charging temperature, undergoes changes under the influence of fluctuations in outside temperature. The tuning spring reacts sensitively to them, ensuring pressure balance.As the temperature rises, the liquid begins to expand, causing an increase in pressure inside the bellows, increasing its volume. The consequence of this is that the valve spool moves towards the hole through which coolant enters the radiator, gradually limiting its flow. This ensures that a balance is established between the fluid pressure and the “forces” of the spring.
A decrease in temperature leads to compression of the liquid inside the bellows, a decrease in its volume, and a drop in pressure. This creates the prerequisites for the tuning spring to open the hole for supplying coolant to the heating device, establishing balance in the system.
Some “subtleties” of installing thermoelements of the RAW-K series.
Thermostatic elements of this series are installed quite simply. The installation process consists of attaching it to the control valve, which is located on the inlet pipe of the radiator device. For this, a connecting nut M30x1.5 and a 32 mm wrench are used. During installation, it is necessary to set the temperature setting indicator opposite the number “5” located on the thermoelement scale. You should also take into account the need for the arrow on the valve body to coincide with the direction of coolant flow.
When installing thermocouples with built-in sensors (RAW-K 5030, RAW-K 5130), the valve stem must be in a horizontal position. If the spatial possibilities for this are limited, you should install a thermal head with an external temperature sensor. And during the installation of the RAW-K 5032 model, the capillary tube is removed from the sensor box and extended to a specified length from the working bellows of the thermoelement.
The structural elements of all models of the RAW-K series allow you to comply with the indispensable rule for installing thermostats regarding free air circulation around the thermoelement and achieving the efficiency of their operation.
You will find complete information about thermostatic elements in the section
I'm building an interpreter and this time I'm targeting raw speed, every clock cycle matters to me in this (raw) case.
Do you have any experience or information about which is faster: Vector or Array? All that matters is the speed at which I can access the element (getting the opcode), I don't care about insertion, allocation, sorting, etc.
Now I'm going to climb out the window and say:
- Arrays are at least slightly faster than vectors in terms of accessing element i.
Seems really logical to me. With vectors you have all these safety and control features that don't exist for arrays.
(Why) Am I wrong?
No, I can't ignore the performance difference - even if it's so small - I've already optimized and minimized every other part virtual machine, which executes opcodes :)
5 answers
The access time of an element in a typical std::vector implementation is the same as the access time of the element in regular array, accessible through a pointer object (that is, the runtime pointer value)
Std::vector
However, access time to an array element accessed as an array object is better than both of the above accesses (equivalent to access via a compile-time pointer value)
Int a; ...a[i]; // Faster than both of the above
For example, a typical read access to an int array accessed through a runtime pointer value would look like this in compiled code on the x86 platform
// pa[i] mov ecx, pa // read pointer value from memory mov eax, i mov
Accessing a vector element will look something like this.
A typical access to a local int array accessed as an array object would look like this
// a[i] mov eax, i mov
A typical access to a global int array accessed as an array object would look like this
// a[i] mov eax, i mov
The difference in performance comes from this extra mov command in the first option, which must make additional memory access.
However, the difference is negligible. And it is easily optimized to be exactly the same in a multiple access context (by loading the target address into a register).
So the statement that "arrays are getting faster" is true in the narrow case where the array is accessed directly through an array object rather than through a pointer object. But the practical value of this difference is practically nothing.
No. Under the hood, both std::vector and C++0x std::array find the pointer to element n by adding n to the pointer to the first element.
vector::at can be slower than array::at because the former must be compared to a variable, while the latter is compared to a constant. These are functions that provide bounds checking, not operator .
If you mean C-style arrays instead of C++0x std::array , then there is no at element, but the dot remains.
EDIT: If you have a table of opcodes, a global array (for example using extern or static linkage) may be faster. Elements of a global array are addressed individually as global variables when the constant is placed inside parentheses, and the opcodes are often constants.
In any case, this is premature optimization. If you don't use any resizing functions, vector looks enough like an array that you can easily convert between the two.
You are comparing apples to oranges. Arrays have a constant size and are automatically allocated, whereas vectors are dynamically sized and are dynamically allocated. What you use depends on what you need.
In general, arrays are allocated "faster" (in quotes because the comparison is meaningless) because dynamic allocation is slower. However, access to the element must be the same. (The provided array will probably most likely be in the cache, although this won't matter after the first access.)
Also, I don't know what kind of "safety" you're talking about, vector has a lot of ways to get undefined behavior just like arrays. Although they do have at() which you don't need to use if you know the index is valid.
Finally, profile and look at the generated assembly. Nobody knows what will solve everything.
To achieve decent results, use a std::vector as a fallback store and take a pointer to your first element before your main loop or whatever:
Std::vector
This avoids any problems with overly useful implementations that perform bounds checking in operator , and simplifies the one-step operation when entering expressions such as mem_buf later in the code.
If each command does enough work and the code is varied enough, this should be faster than using a global array by a negligible amount. (If the difference is noticeable, the opcodes should be more complex.)
Compared to using a global array on x86, instructions for this kind of dispatch should be more concise (no 32-bit offsets anywhere), and for other RISC-like purposes there should be fewer instructions generated (no TOC queries or awkward 32-bit constants) since commonly used values are in the stack frame.
I'm not sure that optimizing the interpreter dispatch loop in this way will provide a good return on investment on time - indeed, instructions should be made to do more if this is an issue, but I suppose it won't take long to try a few different approaches and measure the difference . As always in the case of unexpected behavior, the generated assembly language (and on x86, machine code, as instruction length can be a factor) should be consulted to check for obvious inefficiencies.
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