Encodings: useful information and a brief retrospective. About ANSI and DIN pressure classes, as well as inches and millimeters Ansi protection codes

	Code (binary)	(decimal unsigned)	(decimal sign)
A (capital Latin)
B (capital Latin)
a (small Latin)
A (big Russian) Encoded ANSI
A (big Russian) Encoded ASCII

Similar code as shown above also matches an integer from 0 to 255 in unsigned format. Thus, each character is associated with an integer, also called a character code. A set of character codes is called code table or encoding .

For personal computers, the most common code tables are ANSI (American National Standard Institute) and ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). ANSI table is used in Windows, and ASCII was used in DOS. However, in these two tables the first 128 codes (from 0 to 127) match ; they differ only in the subsequent 128 codes used to store national (Russian) letters and “pseudographic” symbols.

In the tables given, the designation KS means "character code", and WITH- "symbol".

Standard part of the character table (ascii-ansi)

Some of the above symbols have special meanings. So, for example, a character with code 9 denotes a horizontal tab character, a character with code 10 is a line feed character, and a character with code 13 is a carriage return character.

Windows-1251 - character set and encoding, which is the standard 8-bit encoding for all Russian versions Microsoft Windows. This encoding is quite popular in Eastern European countries. Windows-1251 differs favorably from other 8-bit Cyrillic encodings (such as CP866, KOI8-R and ISO 8859-5) by the presence of almost all the characters used in traditional Russian typography for plain text (only the accent mark is missing). Cyrillic characters go to alphabetical order.
Windows-1251 also contains all the characters for languages ​​close to Russian: Belarusian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Macedonian and Bulgarian.
In practice, this turned out to be enough for the Windows-1251 encoding to gain a foothold on the Internet until the spread of UTF-8.

Windows-1251 Character Code Table

Dec	Hex	Symbol		Dec	Hex	Symbol
000	00	NOP		128	80	Ђ
001	01	SOH		129	81	Ѓ
002	02	STX		130	82	‚
003	03	ETX		131	83	ѓ
004	04	EOT		132	84	„
005	05	ENQ		133	85	…
006	06	ACK		134	86	†
007	07	BEL		135	87	‡
008	08	B.S.		136	88	€
009	09	TAB		137	89	‰
010	0A	LF		138	8A	Љ
011	0B	VT		139	8B	‹
012	0C	FF		140	8C	Њ
013	0D	CR		141	8D	Ќ
014	0E	SO		142	8E	Ћ
015	0F	S.I.		143	8F	Џ
016	10	DLE		144	90	ђ
017	11	DC1		145	91	‘
018	12	DC2		146	92	’
019	13	DC3		147	93	“
020	14	DC4		148	94	”
021	15	N.A.K.		149	95
022	16	SYN		150	96	–
023	17	ETB		151	97	—
024	18	CAN		152	98
025	19	E.M.		153	99	™
026	1A	SUB		154	9A	љ
027	1B	ESC		155	9B	›
028	1C	FS		156	9C	њ
029	1D	G.S.		157	9D	ќ
030	1E	R.S.		158	9E	ћ
031	1F	US		159	9F	џ
032	20	SP		160	A0
033	21	!		161	A1	Ў
034	22	"		162	A2	ў
035	23	#		163	A3	Ћ
036	24	$		164	A4	¤
037	25	%		165	A5	Ґ
038	26	&		166	A6	¦
039	27	"		167	A7	§
040	28	(		168	A8	Yo
041	29	)		169	A9	©
042	2A	*		170	A.A.	Є
043	2B	+		171	AB	«
044	2C	,		172	A.C.	¬
045	2D	-		173	AD	­
046	2E	.		174	A.E.	®
047	2F	/		175	A.F.	Ї
048	30	0		176	B0	°
049	31	1		177	B1	±
050	32	2		178	B2	І
051	33	3		179	B3	і
052	34	4		180	B4	ґ
053	35	5		181	B5	µ
054	36	6		182	B6	¶
055	37	7		183	B7	·
056	38	8		184	B8	e
057	39	9		185	B9	№
058	3A	:		186	B.A.	є
059	3B	;		187	BB	»
060	3C	<		188	B.C.	ј
061	3D	=		189	BD	Ѕ
062	3E	>		190	BE	ѕ
063	3F	?		191	B.F.	ї
064	40	@		192	C0	A
065	41	A		193	C1	B
066	42	B		194	C2	IN
067	43	C		195	C3	G
068	44	D		196	C4	D
069	45	E		197	C5	E
070	46	F		198	C6	AND
071	47	G		199	C7	Z
072	48	H		200	C8	AND
073	49	I		201	C9	Y
074	4A	J		202	C.A.	TO
075	4B	K		203	C.B.	L
076	4C	L		204	CC	M
077	4D	M		205	CD	N
078	4E	N		206	C.E.	ABOUT
079	4F	O		207	CF	P
080	50	P		208	D0	R
081	51	Q		209	D1	WITH
082	52	R		210	D2	T
083	53	S		211	D3	U
084	54	T		212	D4	F
085	55	U		213	D5	X
086	56	V		214	D6	C
087	57	W		215	D7	H
088	58	X		216	D8	Sh
089	59	Y		217	D9	SCH
090	5A	Z		218	D.A.	Kommersant
091	5B	[		219	D.B.	Y
092	5C	\		220	DC	b
093	5D	]		221	DD	E
094	5E	^		222	DE	YU
095	5F	_		223	DF	I
096	60	`		224	E0	A
097	61	a		225	E1	b
098	62	b		226	E2	V
099	63	c		227	E3	G
100	64	d		228	E4	d
101	65	e		229	E5	e
102	66	f		230	E6	and
103	67	g		231	E7	h
104	68	h		232	E8	And
105	69	i		233	E9	th
106	6A	j		234	E.A.	To
107	6B	k		235	E.B.	l
108	6C	l		236	E.C.	m
109	6D	m		237	ED	n
110	6E	n		238	E.E.	O
111	6F	o		239	E.F.	P
112	70	p		240	F0	R
113	71	q		241	F1	With
114	72	r		242	F2	T
115	73	s		243	F3	at
116	74	t		244	F4	f
117	75	u		245	F5	X
118	76	v		246	F6	ts
119	77	w		247	F7	h
120	78	x		248	F8	w
121	79	y		249	F9	sch
122	7A	z		250	F.A.	ъ
123	7B	{		251	FB	s
124	7C	|		252	F.C.	b
125	7D	}		253	FD	uh
126	7E	~		254	F.E.	Yu
127	7F	DEL		255	FF	I

Description of special (control) characters

Originally, ASCII table control characters (range 00-31, plus 127) were designed to control hardware devices such as teletypewriters, punched tape data entry, etc.
Control characters (except horizontal tab, line feed, and carriage return) are not used in HTML documents.

Special (control) characters

Code	Description
NUL, 00	Null, empty
SOH, 01	Start Of Heading
STX, 02	Start of TeXt, beginning of the text
ETX, 03	End of TeXt, end of text
EOT, 04	End of Transmission, end of transmission
ENQ, 05	Enquire. Please confirm
ACK, 06	Acknowledgment. I confirm
BEL, 07	Bell, call
BS, 08	Backspace, go back one character
TAB, 09	Tab, horizontal tab
LF, 0A	Line Feed, line feed Nowadays in most programming languages ​​it is denoted as \n
VT, 0B	Vertical Tab, vertical tabulation
FF, 0C	Form Feed, page feed, new page
CR, 0D	Carriage Return Nowadays in most programming languages ​​it is denoted as \r
SO,0E	Shift Out, change the color of the ink ribbon in the printing device
SI, 0F	Shift In, return the color of the ink ribbon in the printing device back
DLE, 10	Data Link Escape, switching the channel to data transmission
DC1, 11 DC2, 12 DC3, 13 DC4, 14	Device Control, device control symbols
NAK, 15	Negative Acknowledgment, I do not confirm
SYN, 16	Synchronization. Synchronization symbol
ETB, 17	End of Text Block, end of the text block
CAN, 18	Cancel, canceling previously transferred
EM, 19	End of Medium
SUB, 1A	Substitute, substitute. Placed in place of a symbol whose meaning was lost or corrupted during transmission
ESC, 1B	Escape Control Sequence
FS, 1C	File Separator, file separator
GS, 1D	Group Separator
RS, 1E	Record Separator, record separator
US, 1F	Unit Separator
DEL, 7F	Delete, erase the last character.

Before answering the question of what is ANSI Windows encoding, let us first answer another question: “What is encoding in general?”

Each computer, each system uses a certain set of characters, depending on the language used by the user, his professional competencies and personal preferences.

General definition of encoding

So, in Russian, 33 symbols are used to indicate letters, in English - 26. 10 digits are also used for counting (0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9) and some special characters, minus , space, period, percentage and so on.

Each of these characters is assigned a serial number using a code table. For example, the letter "A" might be assigned the number 1; "Z" - 26 and so on.

Actually, the number representing the character as an integer is considered the character code, and the encoding is, accordingly, a set of characters in such a table.

Rich variety of code tables

On this moment There are quite a large number of encodings and code tables used by different specialists: these are ASCII, developed in 1963 in America, and Windows-1251, which was recently popular thanks to Microsoft, KOI8-R and Guobiao - and many, many others, and the process of their appearance and death continues to this day.

Among this huge list, the so-called ANSI encoding stands out in particular.

The point is that in due time Microsoft company created a whole set of code pages:

All of them are collectively called ANSI encoding table, or ANSI code page.

Interesting fact: one of the first code tables was ASCII, created in 1963 by the American National Standards Institute, abbreviated as ANSI.

Among other things, this encoding also contains non-printable characters, the so-called “Escape Sequences”, or ESC, which are unique to all character tables and are often incompatible with each other. When used skillfully, however, they allowed you to hide and restore the cursor, move it from one position in the text to another, set tabs, erase part of the terminal window in which you were working, change the formatting of text on the screen and change the color (or even draw and serve sound signals!). In 1976, by the way, this was a pretty good help for programmers. By the way, a terminal is a device required for input and output of information. In those distant times, it was a monitor and keyboard connected to a computer (electronic computer).

Incorrect display of characters

Unfortunately, in the future, such a system caused numerous failures in the systems, displaying instead of the desired poems, news feeds or descriptions of loved ones computer games so-called krakozyabry - meaningless, unreadable character sets. These ubiquitous errors were caused by simply trying to display characters encoded in one code table using another.

Most often, we still encounter the consequences of incorrect reading of this encoding on the Internet, when our browser for some reason cannot accurately determine which of the Windows **** encodings is currently in use, due to the instructions of the web -a master of the general ANSI encoding or an initially incorrect encoding, for example, 1252 instead of 1521. Below is the exact encoding table.

Cyrillic ANSI encoding table, Windows-1251

Moreover, in 1986, ANSI was significantly expanded, thanks to Ian E. Davis, who wrote The Draw package, which allows you not only to use the basic, from our point of view, functions, but also to fully (or almost fully) draw!

Summing up

Thus, you can see that the ANSI encoding, in fact, although it was a rather controversial decision, retains its position.

Over time, with the help of enthusiasts, the ancient ANSI terminal even migrated to telephones!

1.8 Protection algorithms performed by BMRZ

1.8.1 Three-stage overcurrent protection (MTZ) against phase-to-phase faults with current control in two or three phases(Code ANSI ) 50 ). Possibility to select one of four dependent time-current characteristics. Possibility of performing directional MTZ(Code ANSI 67 ), MTZ with combined voltage starting ) (Code ANSI 51 V), with correction for positive sequence voltage, overcurrent protection for phantom voltage. Automatic input of MTZ acceleration whenever the switch is turned on. Two MTZ programs for settings and program keys.

1.8.2 Fast directional protection(Code ANSI 67 ) from all types of short circuits with blocking via a high-frequency channel or fiber-optic communication line on overhead lines that do not have phase-by-phase switch control.

1.8.3 Directional or non-directional protection against single-phase earth faults (OSF)(Code ANSI 64 ), acting on shutdown and/or signaling with two time delays. Registration of high-frequency components in the zero-sequence current. Two setting programs(Code ANSI 50 G/ N).

1.8.4 Protection against asymmetry and phase loss of the supply feeder (ZOF) ( Code ANSI 46 ).

1.8.5 Minimum voltage protection (MVP) ( Code ANSI 27 ).

1.8.6 Logical protection of 6-10 kV buses (LZSH) ( Code ANSI 68 ).

1.8.7 Long-range backup (DR) in case of failure of protection or switches.

1.8.8 Undervoltage protection (LOP) when the switch is turned on ( Code ANSI 27 ).

1.8.9 Overvoltage protection (OVP) ( Code ANSI 59 ).

1.8.10 Distance protection (DP)( Code ANSI 21 ).

1.8.11 Minimum current protection of electric motors (Min TZ) ( Code ANSI 37 ).

1.8.12 Zero sequence current protection (ZCP) ( Code ANSI 51 N).

1.8.13 Protection against open-phase mode (LPFR).

1.8.14 Transformer differential protection ( Code ANSI87T), including:

Differential current protection with braking (DZT);

Differential current cut-off (DTO).

1.8.15 Differential motor protection ( Code ANSI87M), including:

Differential current cut-off (DTO);

Differential protection with braking (DZT);

Differential phase cutoff (DPC).

1.8.16 Tire differential protection (TIP) ( Code ANSI87ВВ).

1.8.17 Power Loss Protection (PLP) ( Code ANSI 27 / 59 ).

1.8.18 Overload protection ( Code ANSI 49 ).

1.8.19 Voltage monitoring (voltage transformer circuits; on busbars or in a line)

(Code ANSI 27 / 59 ).

1.8.20 Voltage synchronism control ( Code ANSI 25 ).

1.8.21 Locked rotor protection(Code ANSI 48 )and delayed engine start (ZBR) ( Code ANSI 14 ).

1.8.22 Thermal model of the electric motor (TM) ( Code ANSI 49 ).

1.8.23 Reverse power protection ( Code ANSI 32 P) and/or reactive power ( Code ANSI 32 Q).

1.8.24 Protection of circuit breaker control electromagnets.

1.8.25 Control of spring winding.

1.8.26 Executing arc protection commands from external devices.

1.8.27 Executing gas protection commands from external devices ( Code ANSI 63 ).

1.8.28 Execution of SF6 gas pressure control commands from external devices.

1.9 Automation algorithms

1.9.1 Determination of power direction (POD) ( Code ANSI67 / 50 / 51R) for directional MT or

for automatic switching between MTZ and OZZ programs.

1.9.2 Double or single automatic reclosing (AR) ( Code ANSI 79 ).

1.9.3 Redundancy in case of circuit breaker failure (breaker failure) ( Code ANSI 50 B.F.).

1.9.4 Automatic switching on reserve (AVR).

1.9.5 Determination of the location of damage (WMD).

1.9.6 Execution of automatic frequency shedding (AFS) and automatic restart commands

frequency (NAF) from external device frequency unloading.

1.9.7 Automatic frequency shedding (AFS).

1.9.8 Limitation of the number of engine starts (EKP) ( Code ANSI 66 ).

1.9.10 Control of electric drives of transformer voltage regulation devices under load.

1.9.11 Control of short circuiter and separator.

1.10 Control algorithms

1.10.1 Turning off and turning on the circuit breaker external teams and buttons on the front panel.

1.10.2 Online input/output of protection and automation functions based on external signals.

1.10.3 Remote change of settings.

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Encodings: useful information and a brief retrospective

This article I decided to write how short review regarding the issue of encodings.

We will figure out what encoding is in general and touch a little on the history of how they appeared in principle.

We will talk about some of their features and also consider points that allow us to work with encodings more consciously and avoid the appearance of so-called krakozyabrov, i.e. unreadable characters.

So, let's go...

What is encoding?

To put it simply, encoding- this is a table of mappings of characters that we can see on the screen to certain numeric codes.

Those. Each character that we enter from the keyboard or see on the monitor screen is encoded with a certain sequence of bits (zeros and ones). 8 bits, as you probably know, are equal to 1 byte of information, but more on that later.

The appearance of the characters themselves is determined by the font files that are installed on your computer. Therefore, the process of displaying text on the screen can be described as a constant comparison of sequences of zeros and ones to some specific characters that are part of the font.

The progenitor of all modern encodings can be considered ASCII.

This abbreviation stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange(American standard character set for printable characters and some special codes).

This single-byte encoding, which initially contains only 128 characters: letters of the Latin alphabet, Arabic numerals, etc.

Later it was expanded (initially it did not use all 8 bits), so it became possible to use not 128, but 256 (2 to the 8th power) different characters that can be encoded in one byte of information.

This improvement made it possible to add to ASCII symbols of national languages, in addition to the already existing Latin alphabet.

There are many options for extended ASCII encoding due to the fact that there are also many languages ​​in the world. I think that many of you have heard about such encoding as KOI8-R is also an extended ASCII encoding, designed to work with Russian language characters.

The next step in the development of encodings can be considered the emergence of the so-called ANSI encodings.

Essentially they were the same extended versions of ASCII, however, various pseudo-graphic elements were removed from them and typographic symbols were added for which there were previously not enough "free spaces".

An example of such ANSI encoding is the well-known Windows-1251. In addition to typographic symbols, this encoding also included letters from the alphabets of languages ​​close to Russian (Ukrainian, Belarusian, Serbian, Macedonian and Bulgarian).

ANSI encoding is a collective name. In reality, the actual encoding when using ANSI will be determined by what is specified in your registry operating system Windows. In the case of Russian, this will be Windows-1251, however, for other languages ​​it will be a different flavor of ANSI.

As you understand, a bunch of coding and the lack of a unified standard did not lead to any good, which was the reason for frequent meetings with the so-called krakozebras- an unreadable, meaningless set of characters.

The reason for their appearance is simple - it is attempting to display characters encoded with one character set using another character set.

In the context of web development, we may encounter bugs when, for example, Russian text is mistakenly saved in a different encoding than the one used on the server.

Of course, this is not the only case when we can get unreadable text - there are a lot of options here, especially if we consider that there is also a database in which information is also stored in a certain encoding, there is a connection mapping to the database, etc.

The emergence of all these problems served as an incentive to create something new. It had to be an encoding that could encode any language in the world (after all, with the help of single-byte encodings, no matter how hard you try, you cannot describe all the characters of, say, the Chinese language, where there are clearly more than 256 of them), any additional special characters and typography.

In a word, it was necessary to create a universal encoding that would solve the problem of crackers once and for all.

Unicode - Universal text encoding (UTF-32, UTF-16 and UTF-8)

The standard itself was proposed in 1991 by the non-profit organization "Unicode Consortium"(Unicode Consortium, Unicode Inc.), and the first result of his work was the creation of the encoding UTF-32.

By the way, the abbreviation itself UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format(Unicode Conversion Format).

In this encoding, to encode one character it was supposed to use as many 32 bits, i.e. 4 bytes of information. If we compare this number with single-byte encodings, we will come to a simple conclusion: to encode 1 character in this universal encoding you need 4 times more bits, which makes the file 4 times heavier.

It is also obvious that the number of characters that could potentially be described using this encoding exceeds all reasonable limits and is technically limited to 2 to the 32nd power. It is clear that this was clearly overkill and wasteful in terms of the weight of the files, so this encoding did not gain distribution.

She was replaced by new development- UTF-16.

As is obvious from the name, in this encoding one character is encoded no longer 32 bits, but only 16(i.e. 2 bytes). Obviously, this makes any character twice as "light" as in UTF-32, but also twice as "heavier" than any character encoded using a single-byte encoding.

The number of characters available for encoding in UTF-16 is at least 2 to the 16th power, i.e. 65536 characters. Everything seems to be fine, and besides, the final code space in UTF-16 has been expanded to more than 1 million characters.

However, this encoding did not fully satisfy the needs of the developers. For example, if you write using exclusively Latin characters, then after switching from the extended version of the ASCII encoding to UTF-16, the weight of each file doubled.

As a result, another attempt was made to create something universal, and this something became the well-known UTF-8 encoding.

UTF-8- This multibyte variable-length encoding. Looking at the name, you might think, by analogy with UTF-32 and UTF-16, that 8 bits are used here to encode one character, but this is not the case. More precisely, not quite like that.

The point is that UTF-8 provides best compatibility with older systems that used 8-bit characters. To encode one character in UTF-8 is actually used from 1 to 4 bytes(hypothetically, up to 6 bytes are possible).

In UTF-8, all Latin characters are encoded in 8 bits, just like in ASCII.. In other words, the basic part of the ASCII encoding (128 characters) has moved to UTF-8, which allows you to “spend” only 1 byte on their representation, while maintaining the universality of the encoding, for the sake of which everything was started.

So, if the first 128 characters are encoded with 1 byte, then all other characters are encoded with 2 bytes or more. In particular, each Cyrillic character is encoded in exactly 2 bytes.

Thus, we have obtained a universal encoding that allows us to cover all possible characters that need to be displayed, without unnecessarily making the files heavier.

With BOM or without BOM?

If you have worked with text editors(code editors), for example Notepad++, phpDesigner, rapid PHP etc., then you probably noticed that when specifying the encoding in which the page will be created, you can usually choose 3 options:

ANSI
- UTF-8
- UTF-8 without BOM

I’ll say right away that you should always choose the last option - UTF-8 without BOM.

So, what is BOM and why don't we need it?

BOM stands for Byte Order Mark. This is a special Unicode character used to indicate byte order. text file. According to the specification, its use is not mandatory, but if BOM is used, it must be set at the beginning of the text file.

We will not go into details of the work BOM. For us, the main conclusion is the following: using this service character together with UTF-8 prevents programs from reading the encoding normally, resulting in errors in the scripts.