19th century English mathematician Charles Babbage?
The idea of creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device
The idea of creating cell phone
The idea of creating computer-controlled robots
In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?
1945, USA
1944, England
1946, France
On what basis were third generation computers created?
Integrated circuits
semiconductors
vacuum tubes
ultra-large-scale integrated circuits
What was the name of the first personal computer?
Name the central device of the computer.
CPU
power unit
Motherboard
The processor processes the information presented:
In decimal number system
In Russian
In machine language (in binary code)
To enter numeric and text information used
Keyboard
The scanner is used for...
To enter images into a computer and text documents
For drawing on it with a special pen
Moving the cursor on the monitor screen
Obtaining holographic images
10. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing financial documents?
Matrix printer
What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing abstracts?
Matrix printer
Jet printer
Laser printer
What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing photos?
Matrix printer
Jet printer
Laser printer
Failure to comply with the sanitary and hygienic requirements of a computer can have a harmful effect on human health...
Electronic monitor ray tube
LCD monitor
Plasma panels
When you turn off your computer, all information is erased from...
Random access memory
laser disk
In what computer device is information stored?
CPU;
The optical tracks are thinner and placed more densely on...
Digital video disc (DVD disc)
Compact disk (CD-disk)
Input devices include...
Output devices include...
Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone
Speakers, monitor, printer, earphone
HDD, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
The program is called...
Computer program can control the operation of the computer if it is located...
On a floppy disk
On hard drive
On CD
Data is...
The sequence of commands that a computer executes while processing data
Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
Data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory
The file is...
Text printed on a computer
Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory
At quick formatting floppy disk …
The disk directory is being cleared
All data is erased
Disk defragmentation in progress
The disk surface is being checked
When fully formatting a floppy disk...
all data is erased
produced full check disk
The disk directory is being cleaned
the disk becomes system
In a multi-level hierarchical file system...
Files are stored in a system that is a system of nested folders
Files are stored in a system that is a linear sequence
History of the development of computer technology:1. Name the first computing device.
1) Abacus
2) Calculator
3) Arithmometer
4) Russian abacus
2. What idea was put forward by the English mathematician Charles Babbage in the mid-19th century?
1) The idea of creating a program-controlled calculating machine with an arithmetic device, a control device, as well as an input and printing device
2) The idea of creating a cell phone
3) The idea of creating computer-controlled robots
3. Name the first computer programmer.
1) Ada Lovelace
2) Sergey Lebedev
3) Bill Gates
4) Sofya Kovalevskaya
4. In what year and where was the first computer based on vacuum tubes created?
1) 1945, USA
2) 1950, USSR
3) 1944, England
4) 1946, France
5. On what basis were third generation computers created?
1) Integrated circuits
2) semiconductors
3) vacuum tubes
4) ultra-large-scale integrated circuits
6. What was the name of the first personal computer?
1) Apple II
2) IBM PC
3) Dell
4) Corvette
Computer structure........................15
1. Name the central device of the computer.
1) Processor
2) System unit
3) Power supply
4) Motherboard
2. How it is recorded and transmitted physical information on a computer?
1) numbers;
2) using programs;
3) is represented in the form of electrical signals.
3. The processor processes the information presented:
1) In the decimal number system
2) In English
3) In Russian
4) In machine language (in binary code)
4. To enter numeric and text information, use
1) Keyboard
2) Mouse
3) Trackball
4) Handle
5. The most important characteristic of coordinate input devices is resolution, which is usually 500 dpi (dot per inch (1 inch = 2.54 cm)), which means...
1) When you move the mouse one inch, the mouse pointer moves 500 points
2) When moving the mouse 500 points, the mouse pointer moves one inch
6. The scanner is used for...
1) For entering images and text documents into a computer
2) To draw on it with a special pen
3) Moving the cursor on the monitor screen
4) Obtaining holographic images
Output devices................................21
1. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing financial documents?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
2. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing abstracts?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
1. What type of printer is appropriate to use for printing photos?
1) Dot matrix printer
2) Inkjet printer
3) Laser printer
2. Failure to comply with the sanitary and hygienic requirements of the computer can have a harmful effect on human health...
1) Cathode ray tube monitor
2) Liquid crystal monitor
4) Plasma panels
3. A device that provides recording and reading of information is called...
1) Disk drive or storage device
4. When you turn off the computer, all information is erased from...
4) RAM
5) Hard drive
6) Laser disk
7) Floppy disks
13. In what computer device is information stored?
1) External memory;
2) monitor;
3) processor;
2. Optical tracks are thinner and placed more densely on...
1) Digital video disc (DVD disc)
2) Compact disk (CD - disk)
3) Floppy disk
3. On which disk is information stored on concentric tracks on which magnetized and non-magnetized areas alternate?
1) On a floppy disk
2) On CD
3) On DVD
4. Input devices include...
1) Hard drive, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
5. Output devices include...
1) Keyboard, mouse, joystick, light pen, scanner, digital camera, microphone
2) Speakers, monitor, printer, earphone
3) Hard drive, processor, memory modules, motherboard, floppy disk
6. A program is called...
7. A computer program can control the operation of a computer if it is located...
1) In RAM
2) On a floppy disk
3) On the hard drive
4) On a CD
8. Data is...
1) The sequence of commands that the computer executes during data processing
2) Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
3) Data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory
9. A file is...
1) Text printed on a computer
2) Information presented in digital form and processed on a computer
3) A program or data that has a name and is stored in long-term memory
10. When quickly formatting a floppy disk...
1) The disk directory is being cleaned
2) All data is erased
3) The disk is being defragmented
4) A check is carried out according to
2. What is an electromechanical relay? When were relays created? computing machines? How fast were they?
3. Where and when was the first computer built? What was it called?
4. What was the role of John von Neumann in the creation of the computer?
5. Who was the designer of the first domestic computers?
6. On what elemental base were the first generation machines created? What were their main characteristics?
7. On what element base were the second generation machines created? What are their advantages compared to the first generation of computers?
8. What is an integrated circuit? When were the first integrated circuit computers created? What were they called?
9. What new areas of computer application have arisen with the advent of third-generation machines?
At the end of 1958 and in the first half of 1959, a breakthrough took place in the semiconductor industry. Three men, representing three private American corporations, solved three fundamental problems that were preventing the creation of integrated circuits. Jack Kilby from Texas Instruments patented the principle of combination, created the first, imperfect, prototypes of IP and brought them to mass production. Kurt Legovets from Sprague Electric Company invented a method for electrically insulating components formed on a single semiconductor chip (p-n junction insulation). P–n junction isolation)). Robert Noyce from Fairchild Semiconductor invented a method for electrically connecting IC components (aluminum metallization) and proposed an improved version of component insulation based on the latest planar technology of Jean Herni. Jean Hoerni). On September 27, 1960, Jay Last's band Jay Last) created on Fairchild Semiconductor the first working one semiconductor IP based on the ideas of Noyce and Ernie. Texas Instruments, which owned the patent for Kilby's invention, launched a patent war against competitors, which ended in 1966 with a global agreement on cross-licensing technologies.
Early logic ICs of the mentioned series were literally built from standard components, the sizes and configurations of which were specified by the technological process. Circuit designers who designed logic ICs of a particular family operated with the same standard diodes and transistors. In 1961-1962 the leading developer broke the design paradigm Sylvania Tom Longo, for the first time using different ICs in one configurations of transistors depending on their functions in the circuit. At the end of 1962 Sylvania launched the first family of transistor-transistor logic (TTL) developed by Longo - historically the first type of integrated logic that managed to gain a foothold in the market for a long time. In analog circuitry, a breakthrough of this level was made in 1964-1965 by the developer of operational amplifiers Fairchild Bob Vidlar.
The first domestic microcircuit was created in 1961 at TRTI (Taganrog Radio Engineering Institute) under the leadership of L. N. Kolesov. This event attracted the attention of the country's scientific community, and TRTI was approved as the leader in the system of the Ministry of Higher Education on the problem of creating highly reliable microelectronic equipment and automating its production. L.N. Kolesov himself was appointed Chairman of the Coordination Council on this problem.
The first hybrid thick-film integrated circuit in the USSR (series 201 “Trail”) was developed in 1963-65 at the Research Institute of Precision Technology (“Angstrem”), mass production since 1965. Specialists from NIEM (now the Argon Scientific Research Institute) took part in the development.
The first semiconductor integrated circuit in the USSR was created on the basis of planar technology, developed in early 1960 at NII-35 (then renamed the Pulsar Research Institute) by a team that was later transferred to NIIME (Mikron). The creation of the first domestic silicon integrated circuit was concentrated on the development and production with military acceptance of the TS-100 series of integrated silicon circuits (37 elements - the equivalent of the circuit complexity of a flip-flop, an analogue of the American IC series SN-51 companies Texas Instruments). Prototype samples and production samples of silicon integrated circuits for reproduction were obtained from the USA. The work was carried out at NII-35 (director Trutko) and the Fryazino Semiconductor Plant (director Kolmogorov) under a defense order for use in an autonomous altimeter for a ballistic missile guidance system. The development included six standard integrated silicon planar circuits of the TS-100 series and, with the organization of pilot production, took three years at NII-35 (from 1962 to 1965). It took another two years to develop factory production with military acceptance in Fryazino (1967).
In parallel, work on the development of an integrated circuit was carried out in the central design bureau at the Voronezh Semiconductor Devices Plant (now -). In 1965, during a visit to the VZPP by the Minister of Electronics Industry A.I. Shokin, the plant was instructed to carry out research work on the creation of a silicon monolithic circuit - R&D “Titan” (Ministry Order No. 92 of August 16, 1965), which was completed ahead of schedule completed by the end of the year. The topic was successfully submitted to the State Commission, and a series of 104 diode-transistor logic microcircuits became the first fixed achievement in the field of solid-state microelectronics, which was reflected in the MEP order No. 403 dated December 30, 1965.
Design Levels
Currently (2014), most integrated circuits are designed using specialized CAD systems, which make it possible to automate and significantly speed up production processes, for example, obtaining topological photomasks.
Classification
Degree of integration
Depending on the degree of integration, the following names of integrated circuits are used:
- small integrated circuit (MIS) - up to 100 elements per chip,
- medium integrated circuit (SIS) - up to 1000 elements per chip,
- large integrated circuit (LSI) - up to 10 thousand elements per chip,
- ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (VLSI) - more than 10 thousand elements in a crystal.
Previously, now outdated names were also used: ultra-large-scale integrated circuit (ULSI) - from 1-10 million to 1 billion elements in a crystal and, sometimes, giga-large-scale integrated circuit (GBIC) - more than 1 billion elements in a crystal. Currently, in the 2010s, the names “UBIS” and “GBIS” are practically not used, and all microcircuits with more than 10 thousand elements are classified as VLSI.
Manufacturing technology
- Semiconductor chip - all elements and inter-element connections are made on one semiconductor crystal (for example, silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide, hafnium oxide).
- Film integrated circuit - all elements and inter-element connections are made in the form of films:
- thick film integrated circuit;
- thin film integrated circuit.
- Hybrid chip (often called microassembly), contains several diodes, transistors and/or other electronic active components. The microassembly may also include unpackaged integrated circuits. Passive microassembly components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are usually manufactured using thin-film or thick-film technologies on a common, usually ceramic, substrate of a hybrid chip. The entire substrate with components is placed in a single sealed housing.
- Mixed microcircuit - in addition to the semiconductor crystal, it contains thin-film (thick-film) passive elements located on the surface of the crystal.
Type of processed signal
Manufacturing technologies
Types of logic
The main element of analog microcircuits are transistors (bipolar or field-effect). The difference in transistor manufacturing technology significantly affects the characteristics of microcircuits. Therefore, the manufacturing technology is often indicated in the description of the microcircuit in order to emphasize general characteristics properties and capabilities of the microcircuit. IN modern technologies combine bipolar and field effect transistors to achieve improved performance of microcircuits.
- Microcircuits based on unipolar (field-effect) transistors are the most economical (in terms of current consumption):
- MOS logic (metal-oxide-semiconductor logic) - microcircuits are formed from field-effect transistors n-MOS or p-MOS type;
- CMOS logic (complementary MOS logic) - each logical element of the microcircuit consists of a pair of complementary (complementary) field-effect transistors ( n-MOS and p-MOP).
- Microcircuits based on bipolar transistors:
- RTL - resistor-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
- DTL - diode-transistor logic (obsolete, replaced by TTL);
- TTL - transistor-transistor logic - microcircuits are made of bipolar transistors with multi-emitter transistors at the input;
- TTLSh - transistor-transistor logic with Schottky diodes - an improved TTL that uses bipolar transistors with the Schottky effect;
- ECL - emitter coupled logic - on bipolar transistors, the operating mode of which is selected so that they do not enter the saturation mode, which significantly increases performance;
- IIL - integral injection logic.
- Microcircuits using both field-effect and bipolar transistors:
Using the same type of transistors, chips can be created using different methodologies, such as static or dynamic.
CMOS and TTL (TTLS) technologies are the most common logic chips. Where it is necessary to save current consumption, CMOS technology is used, where speed is more important and saving on power consumption is not required, TTL technology is used. The weak point of CMOS microcircuits is their vulnerability to static electricity - just touch the output of the microcircuit with your hand, and its integrity is no longer guaranteed. With the development of TTL and CMOS technologies, the parameters of microcircuits are getting closer and, as a result, for example, the 1564 series of microcircuits are made using CMOS technology, and the functionality and placement in the case are similar to TTL technology.
Microcircuits manufactured using ESL technology are the fastest, but also the most energy-consuming, and were used in the production of computer equipment in cases where the most important parameter was calculation speed. In the USSR, the most productive computers of the ES106x type were manufactured on ESL microcircuits. Nowadays this technology is rarely used.
Technological process
In the manufacture of microcircuits, the method of photolithography (projection, contact, etc.) is used, in which the circuit is formed on a substrate (usually silicon) obtained by cutting single crystals of silicon with diamond disks into thin wafers. Due to the small linear dimensions of microcircuit elements, the use of visible light and even near ultraviolet radiation for illumination was abandoned.
The following processors were fabricated using UV radiation (ArF excimer laser, wavelength 193 nm). On average, industry leaders introduced new technological processes according to the ITRS plan every 2 years, doubling the number of transistors per unit area: 45 nm (2007), 32 nm (2009), 22 nm (2011), production of 14 nm started in 2014 , the development of 10 nm processes is expected around 2018.
In 2015, there were estimates that the introduction of new technological processes would slow down.
Quality control
To control the quality of integrated circuits, so-called test structures are widely used.
Purpose
An integrated circuit can have complete, no matter how complex, functionality - up to an entire microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).
Analog circuits
- Filters (including piezoelectric effect).
- Analog multipliers.
- Analog attenuators and variable amplifiers.
- Power supply stabilizers: voltage and current stabilizers.
- Switching power supply control microcircuits.
- Signal converters.
- Synchronization circuits.
- Various sensors (for example, temperature).
Digital circuits
- Buffer converters
- (Micro)processors (including CPUs for computers)
- Chips and memory modules
- FPGAs (programmable logic integrated circuits)
Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:
- Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, active elements electronic devices(transistors) operate in the “key” mode, that is, the transistor is either “open” - which corresponds to a high level signal (1), or “closed” - (0), in the first case there is no voltage drop across the transistor, in the second - through it no current flowing. In both cases, power consumption is close to 0, in contrast to analog devices, in which most of the time the transistors are in an intermediate (active) state.
- High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example, 2.5-5 V) and low (0-0.5 V) level signals. A status error is possible at a level of interference such that high level interpreted as low and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices it is possible to use special codes that allow errors to be corrected.
- A large difference in the levels of the high and high signal states low level(logical “0” and “1”) and a fairly wide range of their permissible changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable dispersion of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminating the need to select components and configure adjustment elements in digital devices.
Analog-to-digital circuits
- digital-to-analog (DAC) and analog-to-digital converters (ADC);
- transceivers (for example, interface converter Ethernet);
- modulators and demodulators;
- radio modems
- teletext, VHF radio text decoders
- Fast Ethernet and optical transceivers
- Dial-Up modems
- digital TV receivers
- optical mouse sensor
- power supply microcircuits for electronic devices - stabilizers, voltage converters, power switches, etc.;
- digital attenuators;
- phase-locked loop (PLL) circuits;
- generators and frequency restorers of clock synchronization;
- base matrix crystals (BMC): contains both analog and digital circuits;
Chip series
Analog and digital microcircuits are produced in series. A series is a group of microcircuits that have a single design and technological design and are intended for joint use. Microcircuits of the same series, as a rule, have the same power supply voltages and are matched in terms of input and output resistances and signal levels.
Housings
Specific names
Legal protection
Russian legislation provides legal protection to integrated circuit topologies. The topology of an integrated circuit is the spatial-geometric arrangement of the set of elements of an integrated circuit and the connections between them recorded on a material medium (Article 1448
Tasks for § 1.3
THE WORLD WIDE WEB
1. The following are the queries to the search engine:
Present the results of these queries graphically using Euler circles. Indicate the request numbers in ascending order of the number of documents that will be found search system for every request.
369 " style="width:276.55pt;border-collapse:collapse">
request
Pages found
Tea coffee
tea| coffee
How many pages will be found for the query “tea”?
 |
_____________________________________________________
Solve the number crossword puzzle.
Look for answers to questions on the World Wide Web.
Horizontally. 1. The year the first integrated circuit made on a silicon wafer went on sale. 3. Year of birth. 4. The year preceding the release year of Windows 3.1.
8. Year of birth of Blaise Pascal. 9. Year of birth of Ada Lovelace.
Vertically. 1. Year of birth of Leonardo da Vinci. 2. The year in which the French engineer Valtat put forward the idea of using the binary number system to create mechanical counting devices.
3. Year of commissioning of MESM. 5. The year in which the BASIC programming language was developed. 6. Year of birth of Euclid (BC).
7. Year of birth of Aristotle (BC)
VLSI
Modern integrated circuits designed for surface mounting.
Soviet and foreign digital microcircuits.
Integral(engl. Integrated circuit, IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip), ( micro)scheme (IS, IMS, m/skh), chip, microchip(English) chip- sliver, fragment, chip) - microelectronic device - an electronic circuit of arbitrary complexity, made on a semiconductor crystal (or film) and placed in a non-separable housing. Often under integrated circuit(IS) understand the actual crystal or film with electronic circuit, and under microcircuit(MS) - IC enclosed in a housing. At the same time, the expression "chip components" means "surface mount components" as opposed to traditional through-hole soldered components. Therefore, it is more correct to say “chip microcircuit”, meaning a surface-mount microcircuit. IN currently(year) most microcircuits are manufactured in surface-mount packages.
Story
The invention of microcircuits began with the study of the properties of thin oxide films, manifested in the effect of poor electrical conductivity at small electrical voltages. The problem was that where the two metals touched, there was no electrical contact or it was polar. Deep studies of this phenomenon led to the discovery of diodes and later transistors and integrated circuits.
Design Levels
- Physical - methods of implementing one transistor (or a small group) in the form of doped zones on a crystal.
- Electric - fundamental electrical diagram(transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.).
- Logical - logical circuit (logical inverters, OR-NOT, AND-NOT elements, etc.).
- Circuit and system level - circuit and system design (flip-flops, comparators, encoders, decoders, ALUs, etc.).
- Topological - topological photomasks for production.
- Program level (for microcontrollers and microprocessors) - assembler instructions for the programmer.
Currently, most integrated circuits are developed using CAD, which allows you to automate and significantly speed up the process of obtaining topological photomasks.
Classification
Degree of integration
Purpose
An integrated circuit can have complete, no matter how complex, functionality - up to an entire microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).
Analog circuits
- Signal generators
- Analog multipliers
- Analog attenuators and variable amplifiers
- Power supply stabilizers
- Switching power supply control chips
- Signal converters
- Timing circuits
- Various sensors (temperature, etc.)
Digital circuits
- Logic elements
- Buffer converters
- Memory modules
- (Micro)processors (including the CPU in a computer)
- Single-chip microcomputers
- FPGA - programmable logic integrated circuits
Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:
- Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, the active elements of electronic devices (transistors) operate in the “key” mode, that is, the transistor is either “open” - which corresponds to a high-level signal (1), or “closed” - (0), in the first case at There is no voltage drop in the transistor; in the second, no current flows through it. In both cases, power consumption is close to 0, in contrast to analog devices, in which most of the time the transistors are in an intermediate (resistive) state.
- High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example 2.5 - 5 V) and low (0 - 0.5 V) level signals. An error is possible with such interference when a high level is perceived as low and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices it is possible to use special codes that allow errors to be corrected.
- The large difference between high and low level signals and a fairly wide range of their permissible changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable dispersion of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminating the need to select and configure digital devices.
Integrated Circuit (IC) is a microelectronic product that performs the functions of signal conversion and processing, which is characterized by dense packing of elements so that all connections and connections between elements form a single whole.
An integral part of an IC are elements that act as electrical and radio elements (transistors, resistors, etc.) and cannot be separated as independent products. In this case, IC elements that perform the functions of amplification or other signal conversion (diodes, transistors, etc.) are called active, and elements that implement a linear transfer function (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are called passive.
Classification of integrated circuits:
By manufacturing method:
According to the degree of integration.
The degree of integration of an information system is an indicator of complexity, characterized by the number of elements and components it contains. The degree of integration is determined by the formula
where k is a coefficient that determines the degree of integration, rounded to the nearest larger integer, and N is the number of elements and components included in the IS.
To quantitatively characterize the degree of integration, the following terms are often used: if k ? 1, An IC is called a simple IC if 1< k ? 2 - средней ИС (СИС), если 2 < k ? 4 - большой ИС (БИС), если k ?4 - сверхбольшой ИС (СБИС).
In addition to the degree of integration, another indicator is used as the packing density of elements - the number of elements (most often transistors) per unit area of the crystal. This indicator mainly characterizes the level of technology; currently it is more than 1000 elements/mm 2.
Film integrated circuits- these are integrated circuits, the elements of which are deposited on the surface of a dielectric base in the form of a film. Their peculiarity is that they do not exist in their pure form. They are used only for the manufacture of passive elements - resistors, capacitors, conductors, inductors.
Rice. 1. Structure of a film hybrid IC: 1, 2 - lower and upper capacitor plates, 3 - dielectric layer, 4 - wire connecting bus, 5 - mounted transistor, 6 - film resistor, 7 - contact pin, 8 - dielectric substrate
Hybrid ICs are thin-film microcircuits consisting of passive elements (resistors, capacitors, pads) and discrete active elements (diodes, transistors). The hybrid IC shown in Fig. 1, is a dielectric substrate with film capacitors and resistors applied to it and an attached mounted transistor, the base of which is connected to the upper plate of the capacitor by a bus in the form of a very thin wire.
In semiconductor ICs All elements and inter-element connections are made in the bulk and on the surface of the semiconductor crystal. Semiconductor ICs are a flat semiconductor crystal (substrate), in the surface layer of which, using various technological techniques, local areas equivalent to the elements of an electrical circuit are formed (diodes, transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.), united along the surface by film metal connections (interconnections).
The substrates of semiconductor ICs are round wafers of silicon, germanium or gallium arsenide, having a diameter of 60 - 150 mm and a thickness of 0.2 - 0.4 mm.
The semiconductor substrate is a group workpiece (Fig. 2), on which a large number of ICs are simultaneously manufactured.
Rice. 2. Group silicon wafer: 1 - basic cut, 2 - individual crystals (chips)
After completing the main technological operations, it is cut into parts - crystals 2, also called chips. The dimensions of the crystal sides can be from 3 to 10 mm. The base cut 1 of the plate serves to orient it during various technological processes.
The structures of the elements of a semiconductor IC - transistor, diode, resistor and capacitor, manufactured by appropriate doping of local sections of the semiconductor using planar technology methods, are shown in Fig. 3, a-d. Planar technology is characterized by the fact that all the terminals of the IC elements are located in the same plane on the surface and are simultaneously connected into an electrical circuit using thin-film interconnects. With planar technology, group processing is carried out, i.e. within one technological process A large number of ICs are obtained on substrates, which ensures high manufacturability and efficiency, and also makes it possible to automate production.
Rice. 3. Structures of elements of a semiconductor IC: a - transistor, b - diode, c - resistor, d - capacitor, 1 - thin-film contact, 2 - dielectric layer, H - emitter; 4 - base, 5 - collector, 6 - cathode, 7 - anode, 8 - insulating layer; 9 - resistive layer, 10 - insulating layer, 11 - plate, 12, 14 - upper and lower electrodes of the capacitor, 13 - dielectric layer
In combined ICs(Fig. 4), which are a variant of semiconductor ones, create semiconductor and thin-film elements on a silicon substrate. The advantage of these circuits is that it is technologically difficult to manufacture resistors of a given resistance in a solid body, since it depends not only on the thickness of the doped semiconductor layer, but also on the distribution of resistivity over the thickness. Adjusting the resistance to the nominal value after manufacturing the resistor also presents significant difficulties. Semiconductor resistors have a noticeable temperature dependence, which complicates IC development.
Rice. 4. Structure of the combined IC: 1 - silicon dioxide film, 2 - diode, 3 - film in-circuit connections, 4 - thin-film resistor, 5, 6, 7 - upper and lower electrodes of the thin-film capacitor and dielectric, 8 - thin-film contacts, 9 - transistor, 10 - silicon wafer.
In addition, it is also very difficult to create capacitors in solids. To expand the resistor and capacitor ratings of semiconductor ICs and improve their performance characteristics, a combination technology based on thin film technology called interconnected circuit technology has been developed. In this case, the active elements of the IC (possibly some resistors that are not critical in terms of nominal resistance) are manufactured in the body of the silicon crystal using the diffusion method, and then passive elements - resistors, capacitors and interconnections - are formed by vacuum deposition of films (as in film ICs).
The electronics element base is developing at an ever-increasing pace. Each generation, appearing in certain moment time, continues to improve in the most justifiable directions. The development of electronic products from generation to generation is moving in the direction of their functional complexity, increasing reliability and service life, reducing overall dimensions, weight, cost and energy consumption, simplification of technology and improvement of electronic equipment parameters.
The emergence of microelectronics as an independent science became possible thanks to the use of rich experience and the industrial base producing discrete semiconductor devices. However, as semiconductor electronics developed, serious limitations in the use of electronic phenomena and systems based on them became clear. Therefore, microelectronics continues to advance at a rapid pace both in the direction of improving semiconductor integrated technology and in the direction of using new physical phenomena. radio electronic integrated circuit
Microelectronics products: integrated circuits of various degrees of integration, microassemblies, microprocessors, mini- and micro-computers - made it possible to carry out the design and industrial production of functionally complex radio and computing equipment, which differs from equipment of previous generations in better parameters, higher reliability and service life, shorter energy consumption and cost. Equipment based on microelectronics products is widely used in all areas of human activity.
Microelectronics contributes to the creation of computer-aided design systems, industrial robots, automated and automatic production lines, communications equipment and much more.
First stage
The first stage included the invention of the incandescent lamp in 1809 by the Russian engineer Ladygin.
The discovery in 1874 by the German scientist Brown of the rectifying effect in metal-semiconductor contacts. The use of this effect by Russian inventor Popov to detect radio signals allowed him to create the first radio receiver. The date of invention of radio is considered to be May 7, 1895, when Popov gave a report and demonstration at a meeting of the physics department of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society in St. Petersburg. IN different countries development and research were carried out on various types of simple and reliable detectors of high-frequency vibrations - detectors.
Second phase
The second stage in the development of electronics began in 1904, when the English scientist Fleming designed an electric vacuum diode. This was followed by the invention of the first amplification tube, the triode, in 1907.
1913 - 1919 was a period of rapid development of electronic technology. In 1913, the German engineer Meissner developed a circuit for a tube regenerative receiver and, using a triode, obtained undamped harmonic oscillations.
In Russia, the first radio tubes were manufactured in 1914 in St. Petersburg by Nikolai Dmitrievich Papaleksi, a consultant to the Russian Society of Wireless Telegraphy, a future academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Third stage
The third period in the development of electronics is the period of the creation and implementation of discrete semiconductor devices, which began with the invention of the point-point transistor. In 1946, a group led by William Shockley was created at the Bell Telephone Laboratory, which conducted research on the properties of semiconductors on Silicon and Germany. The group carried out both theoretical and experimental studies of physical processes at the interface between two semiconductors with different types of electrical conductivity. As a result, three-electrode semiconductor devices were invented - transistors. Depending on the number of charge carriers, transistors were divided into:
- - unipolar (field), where unipolar media were used.
- - bipolar, where different polarity carriers (electrons and holes) were used.
The invention of the transistor was a significant milestone in the history of electronics and therefore its authors John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1956.
The emergence of microelectronics
With the advent of bipolar field-effect transistors, ideas for the development of small-sized computers began to be realized. On their basis, they began to create on-board electronic systems for aviation and space technology. Since these devices contained thousands of individual electroradio elements and more and more of them were constantly required, technical difficulties arose. With increasing number of elements electronic systems It was practically impossible to ensure their functionality immediately after assembly, and to ensure, in the future, the reliability of the systems. The problem of the quality of installation and assembly work has become the main problem for manufacturers in ensuring the operability and reliability of radio-electronic devices. The solution to the interconnection problem was a prerequisite for the emergence of microelectronics. The prototype of future microcircuits was a printed circuit board, in which all single conductors are combined into a single whole and manufactured simultaneously in a group method by etching copper foil with the plane of the foil dielectric. The only type of integration in this case is conductors. Although the use of printed circuit boards does not solve the problem of miniaturization, it does solve the problem of increasing the reliability of interconnections. Printed circuit board manufacturing technology does not make it possible to simultaneously manufacture other passive elements other than conductors. That is why printed circuit boards did not turn into integrated circuits in the modern sense. Thick-film hybrid circuits were the first to be developed in the late 40s; their production was based on the already proven technology for manufacturing ceramic capacitors, using the method of applying pastes containing silver and glass powder to a ceramic substrate through stencils.
Thin-film technology for the production of integrated circuits involves applying thin films of various materials (conducting, dielectric, resistive) to the smooth surface of dielectric substrates in a vacuum.
Fourth stage
In 1960, Robert Noyce of Fairchild proposed and patented the idea of a monolithic integrated circuit and, using planar technology, produced the first silicon monolithic integrated circuits.
A family of monolithic transistor-transistor logic elements with four or more bipolar transistors on a single silicon chip was released by Fairchild already in February 1960 and was called “micrologics”. Horney's planar technology and Noyce's monolithic technology laid the foundation for the development of integrated circuits in 1960, first with bipolar transistors, and then 1965-85. on field-effect transistors and combinations of both.
Two policy decisions adopted in 1961-1962. influenced the development of the production of silicon transistors and ICs. The decision of IBM (New York) to develop for a promising computer not ferromagnetic storage devices, but electronic memories (storage devices) based on n-channel field-effect transistors (metal-oxide-semiconductor - MOS). The result successful implementation This plan was released in 1973. universal computer with MOS memory - IBM-370/158. Directive decisions of Fairchild providing for the expansion of work in the semiconductor research laboratory for the study of silicon devices and materials for them.
Meanwhile, in July 1968, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce left Fairchild's semiconductor division and on June 28, 1968, organized a tiny company, Intel, with twelve people who rented a room in Mountain View, California. The task that Moore, Noyce and the chemical technology specialist who joined them, Andrew Grove, set themselves was to use the enormous potential of integrating a large number of electronic components on a single semiconductor chip to create new types of electronic devices.
In 1997, Andrew Grove became "person of the year", and the company he led Intel company, which became one of the leading companies in Silicon Valley in California, began to produce microprocessors for 90% of all personal computers planets. The emergence of integrated circuits played a decisive role in the development of electronics, ushering in a new stage of microelectronics. Microelectronics of the fourth period is called schematic, because in the composition of the main basic elements it is possible to distinguish elements equivalent to discrete electro-radio elements and each integrated circuit corresponds to a certain basic electrical circuit, as for electronic components of equipment of previous generations.
Integrated circuits began to be called microelectronic devices, considered as a single product with a high density of elements equivalent to the elements of a conventional circuit. The complexity of the functions performed by microcircuits is achieved by increasing the degree of integration.
Electronics present
Currently, microelectronics is moving to high-quality new level- nanoelectronics.
Nanoelectronics is primarily based on the results of fundamental studies of atomic processes in low-dimensional semiconductor structures. Quantum dots, or zero-dimensional systems, are an extreme case of reduced-dimensional systems that consist of an array of nanometer-sized atomic clusters or islands in a semiconductor matrix that exhibit self-organization in epitaxial heterostructures.
One of the possible works related to nanoelectronics is the creation of materials and elements of IR technology. They are in demand by industry enterprises and are the basis for the creation in the near future of “artificial” (technical) vision systems with an expanded spectral range, compared to biological vision, in the ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum. Technical vision systems and photonic components on nanostructures, capable of receiving and processing huge amounts of information, will become the basis of fundamentally new telecommunication devices, environmental and space monitoring systems, thermal imaging, nanodiagnostics, robotics, precision weapons, counter-terrorism tools, etc. The use of semiconductor nanostructures will significantly reduce the size of monitoring and recording devices, reduce energy consumption, improve cost characteristics and make it possible to take advantage of mass production in micro- and nanoelectronics of the near future.
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