Topic 2. Stages of scientific- research work
Stages of research work. Feasibility study (TES) of the topic. Justification of the relevance and significance of the work for the industry and the national economy of the country. Methods of solution, tasks and stages of research. Estimated (potential) economic effect. Anticipated social outcomes. Approval of the feasibility study. The purpose of theoretical research. Rationale physical model, development of a mathematical model. Analysis of preliminary results. Methodological instructions for conducting the experiment. Work plan for experimental work. Introduction of fundamental and applied scientific research into production. State tests.
Federal Law "On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy" dated August 23, 1996 N 127-FZ (current edition, 2016)
Types of research and their main stages
Scientific research can be divided into fundamental, exploratory and applied.
Types of research work
| Types of research | Research results |
| Fundamental research | Expansion of theoretical knowledge. Obtaining new scientific data about processes, phenomena, patterns existing in the area under study; scientific foundations, methods and principles of research |
| Exploratory research | Increasing the amount of knowledge for a deeper understanding of the subject being studied. Development of forecasts for the development of science and technology; discovery of ways to apply new phenomena and patterns |
| Applied research | Resolution of specific scientific problems for creating new products. Receiving recommendations, instructions, calculation and technical materials, methods. Determining the possibility of carrying out R&D (experimental design work) on research topics |
Fundamental and search work As a rule, they are not included in the product life cycle. However, on their basis, ideas are generated that can be transformed into R&D projects.
Applied research is one of the stages life cycle products. Their task is to answer the question: is it possible to create a new type of product and with what characteristics?
The procedure for conducting research is regulated by GOST 15.101-98.
The specific composition of the stages and the nature of the work performed within them are determined by the specifics of the research work.
Stages of scientific research and their summary.
Any specific study can be presented in a series of stages.
1. Selecting a research topic.
2. Definition of the object and subject of research.
3. Definition of goals and objectives.
4. Formulation of the title of the work.
5. Hypothesis development.
6. Drawing up a research plan.
7. Work with literature.
8. Selection of subjects.
9. Selection of research methods.
10. Organization of research conditions.
11. Conducting research (collecting material).
12. Processing of research results.
13. Formulation of conclusions.
14. Design of work.
Each stage has its own tasks, which are often solved sequentially, and sometimes simultaneously.
Selecting a Research Topic. Scientific research always involves solving a scientific problem. Insufficient knowledge, facts, and inconsistency of scientific ideas create grounds for conducting scientific research. The formulation of a scientific problem presupposes:
Detection of the existence of such a deficiency;
Awareness of the need to eliminate the deficit;
Formulating the problem.
It is preferable to study those problems in which a person is more competent and which are related to his practical activities (sports, educational, organizational, teaching or technical, etc.). At the same time, the proposed topic must be assessed from the point of view of the possibility of conducting an experiment, i.e. the presence of a sufficient number of subjects to form experimental groups (experimental and control), research equipment, creation of appropriate conditions for carrying out the process in the experimental group, etc.
Help in choosing a topic can be provided by viewing catalogs of defended dissertations and review publications in special scientific and methodological periodicals.
The topic must be relevant, i.e. useful for meeting the scientific, social, technical and economic needs of society.
Definition of the object and subject of research. An object research is process or phenomenon, which are chosen for study, contain a problematic situation and serve as a source of information necessary for the researcher. (Technological process, management task, social issues of workers).
However, it is recommended to formulate the object of research not in an infinitely broad manner, but in such a way that one can trace the circle of objective reality. This circle should include item as the most important element, which is characterized in direct relationship with other components of this object and can be unambiguously understood only when compared with other aspects of the object.
The subject of the study is more specific and includes only those connections and relationships that are subject to direct study in this work.
From the above it follows that object is what is being studied, and the subject is what receives a scientific explanation in this object. Exactly item research defines the research topic. For example: “The effect of adding cumin essential oil for expiration date(or: taste) sausage product (Hungarian sausage) ».
Defining goals and objectives. Based on the object and subject, you can begin to determine the purpose and objectives of the study. The goal is formulated briefly and extremely precisely, semantically expressing the main thing that the researcher intends to do and what final result he strives for. The purpose of research within coursework and theses may be the development of recipes for new products, new methods for determining the components of food products, the introduction of new components into food products, the development of functional nutrition recipes, etc.
The goal is specified and developed in the research objectives.
Several tasks are set, and each of them, with a clear formulation, reveals the side of the topic that is being studied. When defining tasks, it is necessary to take into account their mutual connection. Sometimes it is impossible to solve one problem without first solving another. Each task posed must have a solution reflected in one or more conclusions.
The first task, as a rule, is associated with identifying, clarifying, deepening, and methodological substantiation of the essence and structure of the object being studied.
The second is related to the analysis of the real state of the subject of research.
The third task is related to transformations of the subject of research, i.e. identifying ways and means to increase the efficiency of improving the phenomenon or process under study (for example, developing an experimental technique for introducing a new component).
The fourth – with experimental verification of the effectiveness of the proposed transformations.
Objectives should be formulated clearly and concisely. As a rule, each task is formulated in the form of an instruction: “Study...”, “Develop...”, “Identify...”, “Establish...”, “Justify...”, “Identify...” ", "Check...", "Prove...", etc.
Formulation of the title of the work. Having determined the topic and specific tasks, and clarified the object and subject of the research, you can give the first version of the wording of the title of the work.
It is recommended to formulate the title of the work as briefly as possible, exactly in accordance with its content. It must be remembered that the title must reflect the subject of the study. Vague formulations should not be allowed in the title of the work, for example: “Analysis of some issues...”, as well as cliched formulations such as: “On the issue of...”, “On the study...”, “Materials on...” .
Immediately finding a complete and concise formulation is not an easy task. Even during the course of research, new, better names may emerge.
Hypothesis development. A hypothesis is a scientific assumption that requires experimental testing and theoretical justification and confirmation. Knowledge of the subject of research allows you to put forward a hypothesis. All hypotheses are divided into descriptive and explanatory. The first describes the relationship between the quality under study and the result of the experimental activity (for example: essential oils have antimicrobial activity - it can increase shelf life by suppressing pathogenic microorganisms;) the second - explanatory - reveals internal conditions, mechanisms, causes and consequences.
Sources for developing a hypothesis can be a generalization of experience, analysis of existing scientific facts and further development of scientific theories. Any hypothesis is considered as an initial outline and a starting point for research, which may or may not be confirmed.
Drawing up a research plan. The research plan is a planned program of action that includes all stages of work with the definition of calendar dates for their implementation. A plan is necessary in order to properly organize the work and give it a more purposeful character. In addition, he disciplines and forces you to work in a certain rhythm.
In the process of work, the initial plan can be detailed, supplemented and even changed.
Working with literature. Place this stage work is defined conditionally, since in reality work with literature begins in the process of choosing a topic and continues until the end of the study. The effectiveness of working with literary sources depends on knowledge of certain rules for searching them, appropriate methods of studying and taking notes. A “literary source” is understood as a document containing any information (monograph, article, abstract, book, etc.).
Selection of subjects. All research is ultimately comparative.
You can compare the results of the experimental system (sausage product), i.e. system in which the new component was used, with the results of the control system (in which the generally accepted recipe was retained for comparison).
You can also compare the results of “today’s” research with the results that were obtained earlier (for example, the same material - a sausage product, with the addition of dry cumin or other essential oils)
Finally, you can compare the results obtained using this model with the standards that exist in the food industry.
It is known that any study is carried out on a relatively small number of models. At the same time, conclusions are drawn in relation to all similar systems (all sausages of the same type). This transfer of experimental results is based on the statistical law of large numbers. The objective effect of this law allows the use of a sampling method in statistics, in which not all units of a particular population are studied, but only a selected part of them. In this case, the generalized characteristics of the selected part (sample population) apply to the entire population (general population). The main requirement for a sample is that it must reflect the features of the general population as much as possible (i.e., be representative).
Using the sampling method, each experimenter solves two problems: What select as subjects and How many they must be chosen.
Selection of research methods. A research method is a way of obtaining data collection, processing or analysis. Various methods of scientific knowledge from other fields of science and technology are widely used in research. On the one hand, this phenomenon can be considered positive, since it makes it possible to study the issues under study in a comprehensive manner, to consider the diversity of connections and relationships, on the other hand, this diversity makes it difficult to choose methods appropriate for a specific study.
The main guideline for choosing research methods can be its objectives. . It is the tasks assigned to the work that determine the methods for solving them, and therefore the choice of appropriate research methods. At the same time, it is important to select methods that would be adequate to the uniqueness of the phenomena being studied.
In the practice of conducting research in the food industry aimed at solving various problems, the following methods are most widespread:
Analysis of scientific and methodological literature, documentary and archival materials;
Survey (conversation, interview and questionnaire);
Control tests (testing);
Expert assessment;
Observation;
Experiment;
Methods of mathematical processing.
The listed groups of methods are closely related to each other. They cannot be used in isolation. For example, to conduct an observation or experiment, it is necessary to first obtain information about what already exists in practice and theory, i.e., use methods of analyzing scientific and methodological literature or surveying. The factual material obtained during the research will not be reliable without mathematical processing methods.
The essence of any experiment is a combination of several of the listed methods.
Organization of research conditions. The organization of an experiment is associated with the planning of its implementation, which determines the sequence of all stages of work, as well as with the preparation of all conditions that ensure a full-fledged study. This includes preparing the appropriate environment, raw materials, instruments, tools, instructing assistants, planning observations, selecting experimental and control groups, assessing all the features of the experimental base, etc.
To successfully conduct an experiment, certain conditions are necessary: the presence of a base (----), appropriate equipment (-----). The question of the location of the experiment in practice, especially at the initial stage, is most often decided on the basis of a personal agreement of the experimenter (for example, the technologist-director of a company). In all cases, to conduct an experiment, permission must be obtained from the head of the organization in which the experiment is supposed to be conducted.
Conducting research. At this stage of work, using selected research methods, the necessary empirical (experimental) data are collected to test the hypothesis.
Initial, intermediate and final studies provide for obtaining indicators using methods for collecting current information, and conducting classes ensures the direct implementation of the intended process (the use of new tools, methods, etc.).
The time intervals between the initial, intermediate and final studies are extremely variable and depend on many reasons (tasks and research methods, actual experimental conditions, etc.).
The study is based on general program experiment, programs for conducting classes in experimental and control groups, as well as programs for conducting observations.
The program indicates the content and sequence of all actions(what, where, when and how will be carried out, observed, checked, compared and measured; what order will be established for measuring indicators, their registration; what equipment, tools and other means will be used; who will do the work and what kind).
Processing of research results. Primary processing data. It is important to process the results of each study, if possible, immediately after its completion, while the experimenter’s memory can suggest those details - which for some reason are not recorded, but are of interest for understanding the essence of the matter. When processing the collected data, it may turn out that they are either insufficient or contradictory and therefore do not provide grounds for final conclusions. In this case, the study must be continued, making the required additions.
In most cases, it is advisable to begin processing by compiling tables (pivot tables) of the received data.
For both manual and computer processing, initial data is most often entered into the initial summary table. Recently, computer processing has become the predominant form of mathematical and statistical processing, so it is advisable to enter into the table all the characteristics that interest you in the form of a decimal number. This is necessary because the data format for most used computer programs imposes its own limitations.
Mathematical data processing. To determine the methods of mathematical and statistical processing, first of all, it is necessary to evaluate the nature of the distribution for all the parameters used. For parameters that have a normal or near-normal distribution, you can use parametric statistics methods, which in many cases are more powerful than nonparametric statistics methods. The advantage of the latter is that they allow testing statistical hypotheses regardless of the shape of the distribution.
The most important statistical characteristics are:
a) arithmetic mean
b) standard deviation
c) coefficient of variation
Based on these characteristics of the normal distribution, one can assess the degree of closeness of the distribution in question to it.
One of the most common tasks in data processing is assessing the significance of differences between two or more series of values. In mathematical statistics, there are a number of ways to solve it. The computer version of data processing has now become the most widespread. Many statistical software programs have procedures for estimating differences between parameters of the same sample or different samples. With fully computerized material processing, it is not difficult to right moment use the appropriate procedure and evaluate the differences of interest.
Formulation of conclusions. Conclusions are statements that express short form substantive results of the research, they reflect in abstract form what is new that the author himself has obtained. A common mistake is that the author includes in his conclusions generally accepted principles in science - which no longer require proof.
The solution to each of the problems listed in the introduction must be reflected in a certain way in the conclusions.
Registration of work. The main task of this stage of work is to present the results obtained in a publicly accessible and understandable form, allowing them to be compared with the results of other researchers and used in practical activities. Therefore, the design of the work must comply with the requirements for works sent for printing (qualification work - requirements).
An approximate list of works at different stages of research is given in the table.
Stages of research and the scope of work on them
| Stages of research | Scope of work |
| Development of technical specifications (technical specifications) for research work | Scientific forecasting Analysis of the results of fundamental and exploratory research Study of patent documentation Taking into account customer requirements |
| Choosing a research direction | Collection and study of scientific and technical information Compilation of an analytical review Conducting patent research Formulation of possible directions for solving problems set in the research specifications and their comparative assessment Selection and justification of the adopted direction of research and methods for solving problems Comparison of expected indicators of new products after the implementation of research results with existing indicators analogue products Assessment of the estimated economic efficiency of new products Development of a general research methodology Drawing up an interim report |
| Theoretical and experimental studies | Development of working hypotheses, construction of models of the research object, justification of assumptions |
| Identifying the need to conduct experiments to confirm certain provisions of theoretical studies or to obtain specific values of parameters necessary for calculations | |
| Development of experimental research methods, preparation of models (layouts, experimental samples), as well as testing equipment | |
| Conducting experiments, processing the obtained data | |
| Comparison of experimental results with theoretical studies | |
| Correction of theoretical models of the object Carrying out additional experiments if necessary | |
| Conducting feasibility studies Drawing up an interim report | |
| Generalization and evaluation of research results | Summarizing the results of previous stages of work Assessing the completeness of the solution of problems developing recommendations for further research and carrying out R&D development development of a draft technical specification for R&D drawing up a final report acceptance of the research work by the commission |
The development of a new recipe at food industry enterprises ends with the preparation of regulatory documents (TU, STO); obtaining Certificates, Declarations; making amendments to the technological process (if required) - writing instructions, etc.
Topic 1. GENERAL VIEW OF SCIENCE4
Topic 2. METHODOLOGY OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE11
Topic 3. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN
METHODOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING24
Topic 4.METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT OF SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH37
Topic 5. FEATURES OF METHODOLOGICAL SUPPORT
EDUCATIONAL AND EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH WORK47
Topic 6. LOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PROOF
(ARGUMENTATION)54
INTRODUCTION
The didactic principle of the unity of educational and scientific work in higher education
educational institutions means that in the process of training
teachers need to teach students not only well
carry out practical processes of their future activities, but
realize its shortcomings, conduct scientific research and root them
Students are taught research work in two ways:
directions: in the process of scientific and educational work (when students write
student scientific community in free time from classes
(preparing reports for scientific conferences, writing articles, etc.).
In modern scientific research methodology there are two
type of knowledge: subject related to professional practical
work and regulatory and normative (methodological) aimed at
scientific knowledge of subject-related practical activities.
basic theoretical, methodological and organizational knowledge about
carrying out scientific and educational work, scientific research and designing them
results in accordance with generally accepted standards. Training program
provides for introducing students to the specifics of scientific knowledge,
principles and methods of scientific research, as well as methodology
―the specifics of science, its goals, functions, results, types of scientific
research;
―laws, principles of knowledge, general logical, general scientific and
special research methods;
―basic techniques for choosing a relevant topic for research and
ways to draw up a program for its implementation;
―algorithmic searches for information in document sources
information and in electronic information resources;
—methods of working with text;
―methods of preparation and execution of educational and scientific works.
―draw up a scientific research program;
―analyze scientific literature on the research topic;
―prepare quotes and other extracts from the text of scientific literature;
―refer to facts and provide bibliographic references to
information sources.
Topic 1. GENERAL VIEW OF SCIENCE
4. What forms of knowledge and types of scientific research have developed?
The goal is to form an idea of what science is, its
specificity; or, functions, result, levels of scientific knowledge, forms
sensory and rational knowledge, types of scientific research
1. What definitions of the concept “science” exist?
There are various definitions of the concept in the scientific literature
the science. Most modern scientists consider it in three
hypostases: as a specific sphere (type) of human activity;
social institution; body (system) of scientific knowledge. However, when
The definition of the concept of science proceeds from its first and third essences.
For example, the Belarusian philosopher and methodologist V.K. Lukashevich writes that
production and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about
natural, social and spiritual reality" (1, p. 15). Second
the definition of science as a body of scientific knowledge sounds like this: “Science as
information about natural, social and spiritual reality" (1, p. 15).
The entire set of cognitive actions of people is accepted
divided into two groups: 1) activities that are carried out in
within the framework of specific types of human activity (subject-practical,
communicative, value-oriented) and 2) activities that
carried out within the framework of science as a special type of human activity,
aimed at producing new knowledge about the surrounding reality.
Consequently, knowledge accumulated outside science stands out, which
produced during the creation of certain products, means of labor,
artistic images, etc. and scientific knowledge as a system in which
Scientific information (knowledge) is subject to a general structure. Like a system
science appears in the following forms: 1) in the form of social consciousness
or awareness; 2) in the form of social practice, including theories,
methodologies, human resources, information support for scientific
institutions.
"Methodology of scientific research" (Mn., 2002) emphasizes
represents not just the sum of any knowledge about the real world, but
a system of reliably formed and verified statements about phenomena
formulated by means of special concepts, judgments, inferences,
curious people, and the result of the activity of all mankind, it is subordinated
goals for the development of social practice. Scientific knowledge, let us also emphasize
theoretical systematization of knowledge about nature, society, man,
sciences: natural, social (or public), humanities and
Technical science.
Science arose, therefore, in response to social
needs for knowledge, but its further development did not continue
only under the influence of socio-economic factors, but also under
influence of internal determinants (patterns, ideas, etc.).
Therefore, among scientists there were and still are two points of view:
called the internalist approach), others argue that
science develops under the influence of external socio-economic
factors (the so-called externalist approach). Apparently more correct
The famous Russian scientific methodologist G.I. also came to this conclusion. Ruzavin
2. What are the specifics of scientific activity?
Now let's consider the second question of our topic - the specifics of scientific
activity (cognition).
Scientific knowledge as a specifically organized set
cognitive actions has a number of characteristics that distinguish
it from other types of human activity. Methodological scientists usually
There are six such features:
1. science is ideally aimed at producing new knowledge;
2. the basis of scientific knowledge is the clear identification of its subject as
a holistic set of interrelated characteristics of an object;
3. scientific knowledge involves the use of specialized
instruments (methods, test objects (devices), experimental
installations, etc.);
4. scientific knowledge is regulated by certain types of normative
knowledge (laws, principles, ideals, norms, scientific style
thinking, etc.);
5. the results of scientific knowledge are recorded in special forms of knowledge and
must meet a number of requirements (reproducibility,
validity, consistency, objectivity, controllability);
6. a significant difference between scientific knowledge is the presence
specialized (scientific) language.
Within the framework of the organization’s reflection, scientific knowledge has not been lost
its significance is the Aristotelian model of the research process,
which includes the following stages: the first of them involves
presentation of the state of the topic (problem) under study and critical analysis
previous points of view, approaches, solutions; the second stage includes
exact formulation of the topic (problem) under study; the third stage is related to
highlighting (formulating) your own solution to the problem; fourth
stage involves justification (argumentation) using various
kind of facts and judgments (practical, scientific) and logical
evidence, as well as the advantage of the proposed solution in comparison
with the previous ones.
aimed at creating and theoretical systematization of knowledge about
nature, society, man and the means of production created by him.
Therefore, the following large complexes of sciences have developed in society:
natural sciences, social or social sciences, humanities,
technical.
3. What are the goals, functions and results of science?
The goals of science are to understand, explain and predict future developments
phenomena of nature, society, man, technology.
In accordance with the main goals of science, there are three main
its functions as a field of activity: epistemological (gnoses - knowledge,
ology - doctrine), heuristic (search for truth) and prognostic
(predictive) – forecast for future development. Science as social
The institute also carries out following functions: ideological
(promoting the education of a scientific worldview), social strength (or
promoting the socialization of the individual), productive force (promoting
scientific and technological progress).
The result of science is scientific knowledge (which means there are others
work, confirmed by socio-historical practice and not
contradicts (certified) logic and its adequate reflection in
human consciousness in the form of ideas, judgments, theories. Knowledge
have varying degrees of reliability, reflecting the dialectic
relative and absolute truth. Knowledge can be pre-scientific,
everyday, artistic (as a specific way of aesthetic
mastering reality) and scientific (empirical and theoretical).
Everyday knowledge is based on common sense and everyday consciousness,
are an important reference point for everyday behavior
person. These forms of knowledge develop and become enriched with progress
scientific knowledge. At the same time, scientific knowledge itself absorbs experience
everyday knowledge.
Scientific knowledge is characterized by understanding facts in a system
concepts of a given science are included in the theory that forms a high
level of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge, being a generalization of reliable
facts, behind the random finds the necessary and natural, behind the individual and
Human thinking constantly moves from ignorance to knowledge, from
superficial to increasingly deeper, essential and comprehensive
knowledge that serves as a necessary condition for transforming activities
man and humanity.
There is also the concept of “anti-scientific knowledge” - knowledge, the main
politics and other areas).
4. What forms of knowledge and types of scientific
research?
In science, it is customary to divide the cognitive actions of people into two
forms of knowledge: sensory knowledge, rational knowledge. Let's consider
the specifics of each of these forms.
carried out through the human senses: sight, hearing,
touch, smell and taste. In philosophical literature sometimes sensual
cognition is called the concept of “living contemplation.” Sensory cognition in
in turn, includes four forms that you already know from
psychology (they are called that - cognitive processes), and
namely: sensation, perception, representation and imagination.
objects that affect the senses (visual sensation,
auditory sensation, olfactory sensation, gustatory sensation,
tactile sensation, i.e. according to the type of human analyzers).
objective world under their direct influence at the moment
to the senses. Perception is a more complex form of sensory cognition,
which is characterized by such properties as integrity, objectivity,
generality, contact, meaningfulness, ingenuity.
a person’s idea of past events, remembered objects,
people who came into contact with the person, etc.
Imagination is a form of sensory cognition or process
creating new samples based on previously perceived ones. Imagination
is a reflection of reality in new
unusual combinations and connections. Imagination by degree of activity
divided into active and passive. Form of activity
imaginations are dreams. Dreams are desires pushed back in time.
carried out through human mental activity.
Its main difference from sensory knowledge is that it:
1) is based on an explanation of the facts obtained on
empirical level;
2)aimed at reflecting the general properties of the knowable
objects, i.e. abstraction from their individual properties;
3) direct connection of rational cognition with language,
for language is the material shell of thought (V.K. Lukashevich).
The main forms of rational knowledge are: concept,
essential features of the subject. For example, the concept of “library
catalog" - a list of bibliographic descriptions of documents available
in the collection of a library or group of libraries, compiled according to a specific
plan and disclosing the composition or content of library collections.
the connection between an object or its attribute or the relationship between
objects that have the property of expressing either the truth or lie.
For example, bibliographic products By attribute content
documents subdivided on kinds: at universal, industry,
thematic, etc.
one or several judgments is displayed new judgment. For example er, V
everyone region There is need V information, Not related With region
(By general questions development Sciences And practices). IN everyone region There is,
Naturally, there is a need for information about your region. Two judgments.
Conclusion. Information needs region have in his
structure two level: general And regional. Means, IP region And
regional individual entrepreneurs relate to each other as a whole and a part.
Process rational knowledge regulated laws And
requirements logic, A also e rules conceptual and logical
reasoning, i.e. drawing conclusions from premises to conclusions.
Rational cognition Not is exhausted considered
processes. It includes V myself And such phenomenon How intuition or
sudden comprehension tion what you're looking for result at unawareness And
intuition is understood "complex structured process, including
How rational, So And sensual elements." Productive function
intuition confirmed big quantity facts from stories Sciences And
technology. However intuitively received knowledge Not Always I'll turn it on are looking forward to V
Regional State Autonomous Educational Institution
secondary vocational education
"Regional College of Entrepreneurship"
Course of lectures on the discipline
"FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH ACTIVITY"
Compiled by: N.V.Mulina
teacher of the highest category
Perm, 2011
SECTION 1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 3
Topic 1.1. Research and its role in practice
Human activities 3
Topic 1.2. Structure of research work 13
Topic 1.3. Main stages of the research process 17
Topic 1.4. Methods of scientific knowledge 23
Topic 1.5. Accumulation and processing of scientific information 27
Topic 1.6. Language and style of research work 38
Topic 1.7. Methods for presenting results
Research activities 51
^ SECTION 2. LOGICAL LAWS AND RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 56
SECTION 1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
Topic 1.1. Research and its role in human practice
In life, each of us is faced with gigantic information flows every minute. But not all the information is absorbed; only a small part of it turns into knowledge.
Information becomes knowledge only when it comes into contact with a person’s previous experience, thereby restructuring all existing knowledge. One figuratively flew in, another time it flew out”!
Traditional teaching assumes that students are passive people whom the teacher tries to “stuff” with a standard set of ready-made knowledge. This method is fast and effective, but it is applicable in relatively simple situations. Very often the learning process turns into a heavy duty, difficult, unattractive work.
Man was born to know this world. With what more people knows, the more comfortable he will live.
The task is for students not only to obediently swallow and assimilate “portions of knowledge” prepared by someone, but also to obtain this knowledge on their own in the course of research.
In 1996, the Council of Europe on Education developed 5 key competencies that a 21st century graduate should possess:
Skill to work in team;
Ability to communicate orally and in writing, knowledge of a foreign language;
Ability to work with information (find, be critical, process, save, transmit);
Tolerance (tolerate other opinions, give others the opportunity to think differently than me);
Lifelong learning.
One of the first, at the beginning of the twentieth century, was the American educator and philosopher John Dewey who began to promote and actively apply the ideas of inquiry-based learning.
When any problem is solved, learning is connected with life, independence, activity, the ability to communicate, and cooperate with people in various activities develops.
In the course of numerous experiments, it has been repeatedly proven that exploratory behavior should be considered as an integral manifestation of the vital activity of any living creature. Exploratory behavior performs an important function – a developmental function. Exploratory behavior turns out to be stronger in both humans and animals than feeding or defensive behavior.
A clear confirmation of this statement are the results of the experiment. For a long time The rats participating in the experiment lived in conditions of complete comfort, all their needs were met. The animals received enough food, they did not need protection from predators, they did not need to solve other problems. However, despite this, the rats sought to explore the nearby and in no way particularly unattractive room. The animals tried to get into it, although no one forced them to do so, and even moreover, this room was dangerous for them. Exploratory behavior in animals is a natural part of the struggle for survival.
Exploratory behavior is characteristic of all living beings; this feature is most clearly manifested in humans. The main difference between human research activity is manifested not so much in the struggle for survival, but in creativity.
A person is able to experience pleasure not only from the result of creativity, but also from the very process of creative, research search.
American students explored the problem of differences in behavior between humans and animals. They built a large, complex maze for people and a similar, smaller one for rats. For successfully completing the maze, the man was given five dollars, and the rat was given a piece of cheese. No significant differences were observed in the passage of the maze by humans and rats. After they stopped giving the rats cheese and the people money, the rats, after several attempts, stopped running, and the people continued to break into the laboratory and try to improve their results.
For the rats, the only thing that motivated them to complete the maze was a piece of cheese. And for humans, the process of the task itself was more important than the reward. People understood that by optimizing the process of moving through the maze, the result could be improved.
Scientists claim that an unmet need for creative (exploratory) behavior in humans can lead to serious diseases of the nervous system. A person is a researcher from a young age, and what little children sometimes hear is: don’t interfere, don’t touch, leave me alone, it’s too early for you to know about it. For elders, this is a disdainful attitude towards their own conclusions, conclusions made by them on the basis own experience: observations and experiments.
Experiments indicate that research activity is led by the right hemisphere, the left hemisphere is responsible for processing the information received and obtained during the research search. Thus, exploratory behavior activates the work of both hemispheres.
The exploratory reflex is one of the basic unconditioned reflexes. The need for research activity is the driving force behind human development and self-development.
To explore, study, discover means to take a step into the unknown and unknown.
The activity of a researcher is a creative activity, and it does not matter what a person does: paints pictures, develops new computers, or studies the movement of celestial bodies.
Each new information, turning into knowledge, makes them completely different. And people are sometimes afraid and unsure of themselves. At school they only require the correct answer, and if you allow yourself to express original, unexpected solutions, you can become an object of ridicule. Although criticism of ideas is unacceptable, since it restrains the flight of imagination.
As children, children often make up various stories and invent non-existent events. This phenomenon is closely related to research activity. The child’s need for such activity is great, the flow of information received is large, and the age-related opportunities for its processing and assimilation are still small. This contradiction creates a conflict between an excess of incoming information and a lack of tools necessary to understand and explain the environment.
After all, information becomes knowledge when it comes into contact with previous experience. And this requires the skills and abilities necessary to solve research problems. These include the skills: to see problems, ask questions, put forward hypotheses, define concepts, classify observations and skills in conducting experiments, draw conclusions and conclusions, structure material, work with text, etc.
Science and its role in the development of society
The concept of “science” has several basic meanings:
The sphere of human activity aimed at the development and theoretical schematization of objective knowledge about reality;
Science acts as the result of this activity - a system of acquired scientific knowledge;
The term "science" is used to designate certain branches of scientific
Science can be considered as a branch of culture that did not exist
At all times and not among all peoples.
The immediate goals of science are to obtain knowledge about the world around us, to predict processes and phenomena of reality based on the laws it discovers. Science was created to directly identify the essential aspects of all phenomena of nature, society and thinking.
The main tasks of science include:
Discovery of the laws of motion of nature, society, thinking and knowledge;
Collection, analysis, synthesis of facts;
Systematization of acquired knowledge;
Explanation of the essence of phenomena and processes;
Forecasting events, phenomena and processes;
Establishing directions and forms of practical use of acquired knowledge.
Not all knowledge can be considered scientific. It is impossible to recognize as scientific the knowledge that a person receives only on the basis of simple observation. This knowledge plays an important role in people’s lives, but it does not reveal the essence of phenomena, the relationship between them, which would make it possible to explain why a given phenomenon occurs in one way or another, and to predict its further development.
The correctness of scientific knowledge is determined not only by logic, but, above all, by mandatory testing of it in practice. Revealing the natural connections of reality, science expresses them in abstract concepts and diagrams that strictly correspond to this reality.
Science can be viewed as a system consisting of: theory; methodology, techniques and research techniques; practice of implementing the results obtained.
The development of science proceeds from the collection of facts, their study and systematization, generalization and disclosure of individual patterns to a coherent, logically harmonious system of scientific knowledge, which makes it possible to explain already known facts and predict new ones.
The process of cognition involves the accumulation of facts. Without systematization and generalization, without logical understanding of facts, no science can exist. But although facts are essential material for a scientist, they are not science in themselves. Facts become an integral part of scientific knowledge when they appear in a systematized, generalized form.
Facts are systematized and generalized using the simplest concepts, which are important structural elements of science. The broadest concepts are called categories. An important form of knowledge is principles (postulates), axioms. A principle is understood as the starting points of any branch of science. They are the initial form of systematization of knowledge (axioms of Euclidean geometry, Bohr's postulate in quantum mechanics, etc.).
The most important component in the system of scientific knowledge are scientific laws, reflecting the most significant, stable, repeating objective internal communications in nature, society and thinking. Usually laws appear in the form of a certain relationship of concepts and categories.
The highest form of generalization and systematization of knowledge is theory. Theory is understood as the doctrine of generalized experience (practice), formulating scientific principles and methods that make it possible to generalize and understand existing processes and phenomena, analyze the effect on them various factors and offer recommendations for their use in people’s practical activities.
Scientific disciplines, which in their totality form the system of sciences as a whole, can very conditionally be divided into 3 large groups (subsystems) - natural, social and technical, differing in their subjects and methods. There is no sharp line between these subsystems - a number of scientific disciplines occupy an intermediate position. So, for example, at the junction of technical and social science there is technical aesthetics, between natural and technical science - bionics, between natural and social science - economic geography. Each of these subsystems, in turn, forms a system of individual sciences coordinated and subordinated by subject and methodological connections in a variety of ways, which makes the problem of their detailed classification extremely complex and not completely resolved to this day.
Along with traditional research conducted within any one branch of science, the problematic nature of the orientation of modern science has given rise to widespread deployment of interdisciplinary and comprehensive research, carried out by means of several different scientific disciplines, the specific combination of which is determined by the nature of the relevant problem. An example of this is the study of environmental problems, located at the crossroads of technical sciences, biology, earth sciences, medicine, economics, mathematics, etc. These kinds of problems arising in connection with the solution of large farms and social problems are typical of modern science. According to their focus, according to their direct relationship to practice, individual sciences are usually divided into fundamental and applied.
The task of fundamental sciences is to understand the laws governing the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature, society and thinking. These laws and structures are studied in their “pure form”, as such, without regard to their possible use. Therefore, fundamental sciences are sometimes called “pure” sciences.
The immediate goal of applied sciences is to apply the results of fundamental sciences to solve not only cognitive, but also social and practical problems. Therefore, here the criterion of success is not only the achievement of truth, but also the measure of satisfaction of social order. At the intersection of applied sciences and practice, a special area of research is developing - developments that translate the results of applied science into form technological processes, structures, industrial materials, etc.
Applied sciences can develop with a predominance of both theoretical and
Practical problems. For example, in modern physics, electrodynamics and quantum mechanics play a fundamental role, their application to the knowledge of specific subject areas forms various branches of theoretical applied physics - physics of metals, physics of semiconductors, etc. Further application of their results to practice gives rise to a variety of practical applied sciences - metal science, semiconductor technology, etc., the direct connection of which with production is carried out by corresponding specific developments. All technical science is applied.
As a rule, fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development, creating a theoretical foundation for them. In modern science, applied science accounts for up to 80-90% of all research and allocations. One of the pressing problems of the modern organization of science is the establishment of strong, systematic relationships and reduction of movement times within the cycle “basic research - applied research - development - implementation”.
In the Classifier of directions and specialties of higher professional
Education developed by scientific and methodological councils - departments of the UMO in the areas of education are highlighted:
- natural sciences and mathematics (mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geography, hydrometeorology, geology, ecology, etc.);
- humanities and socio-economic sciences (cultural studies, theology, philology, philosophy, linguistics, journalism, bibliology, history, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, regional studies, management, economics, art, Physical Culture, commerce, agricultural economics, statistics, art, law, etc.);
- Technical science (construction, printing, telecommunications, metallurgy, mining, electronics and microelectronics, geodesy, radio engineering, architecture, etc.); agricultural sciences (agronomy, animal science, veterinary medicine, agricultural engineering, forestry, fisheries, etc.).
Research concept
Many people believe that research is the task of a scientist in his daily work. This is a deep misconception. In the modern world, research is the main factor of success, and, to put it scientifically, the main factor in increasing management efficiency.
Research allows us to see where the reserves are and what hinders development, what needs to be feared and what needs to be supported.
The development of professionalism in various fields of activity leads to an understanding of research as a logical and natural element of its practical effectiveness. In this case, research is no longer associated only with scientific activity and even with a scientific approach. This is a professionalism factor.
In this regard, we can construct a definition of the concept of “research” as follows. Research is a type of human activity consisting of:
Recognizing problems and situations;
Determining their origin;
Identifying properties, content, patterns of behavior and development;
Establishing the place of these problems and situations in the system of accumulated knowledge;
Finding ways, means and opportunities to use new ideas or knowledge about a given problem in the practice of resolving it.
In real practice, these signs of research are in a certain ratio, characterizing both the degree of professionalism and the specific goals and objectives of the activity.
The study of a problem or situation includes a wider range of methods than analysis or design. This includes observation, evaluation, conducting an experiment, classification, constructing indicators, and much more. Of course, research includes analysis, but is not limited to it. Research represents a higher level of human creativity.
Typology of research
^ By purpose, we can distinguish between practical and scientific-practical (educational) research. There are studies designed simply to develop effective solutions and achieve the desired result, but there are studies focused on the future, updating knowledge, increasing educational levels.
It is possible to conduct research by involving, to one degree or another, the apparatus of scientific analysis and scientific methodology. Research can be of an empirical nature, that is, based primarily on accumulated experience and the immediate, immediate result.
Studies differ in the use of resources and the timing of their conduct. There are studies that are insignificant resource-intensive and, conversely, resource-intensive. And in time - long and short-term.
An important criterion for the typological choice of research is the criterion of information support. Can be built research based only on internal information, but deeper research is, of course, using extensive external information. This allows us to draw more informed conclusions and develop more effective recommendations.
Finally, studies also differ in the degree of organization and participation of personnel in their conduct. They can be either individual or collective, spontaneous or organized.
Characteristics of the study
Any study has a set of characteristics that must be taken into account when conducting and organizing it. The main ones of these characteristics are the following:
Research methodology is a set of goals, approaches, guidelines, priorities, means and methods of research.
Organization of research - the procedure for conducting it, based on the distribution of functions and responsibilities enshrined in regulations, standards and instructions.
Research resources are a set of means and capabilities (for example, informational, economic, human, etc.) that ensure the successful conduct of research and the achievement of its results.
Object and subject of research. The object is a management system belonging to the class of socio-economic systems, the subject is a specific problem, the resolution of which requires research.
The type of research is its belonging to a certain type, reflecting the originality of all characteristics.
The need for research is the degree of severity of the problem, professionalism in approaches to solving it, management style.
The effectiveness of the research is the proportionality of the resources used to conduct the research and the results obtained from it.
1.1.5. Requirements for a modern specialist
In the past, it was very common for managers to strive for precise execution. A good leader was considered to be one who knew how to carry out orders from higher authorities or instructions, standards, and complied with accepted types of business behavior. Subsequently, the independence of the leader began to be valued. Independence is good quality, but it can also manifest itself in different ways. There is independence in execution and independence in purposeful development, there is initiative independence and independence limited by a certain concept of business behavior, there can be independence of experience and independence of search.
Today the concept of a research specialist is being born. What makes it special?
In a more detailed presentation, the following features of a research-type specialist can be identified:
Problematic vision of the world, the ability to recognize problems where everything is clear to others;
The ability to preventively, that is, in advance, in advance, to pose problems when they are just emerging;
Systemic and panoramic perception of reality, processes of functioning and development of the controlled object;
Antinomy - the ability to perceive, understand, accept and use points of view different from one’s own or even opposite to them;
Presentation is the ability to make correct and successful conclusions when there is a lack of information.
Developed psychological self-regulation, which determines the attitude towards problems and their assessment;
Ability to imitate the functions of various team members;
Psychological insight that allows you to see more in people than they act or demonstrate. Psychodiagnostics is a compensator for insight;
Innovativeness and inertia-free thinking, the ability to go beyond the boundaries of the formal, familiar, proven, traditional;
Attractiveness is the ability to attract people to joint activities without resorting to means of material or administrative coercion.
The ability to quickly adapt psychologically when operating conditions change or when moving to solving fundamentally new problems;
The ability to delegate not only power and responsibility, but also your authority as a leader;
The ability for latent (hidden) leadership, which involves involving people in activities not on a formal subordination basis, but by “going into the shadows”, the ability to seek advice and help.
All these properties do not exist each on its own and not in a scattered chaotic aggregate, but in a system of interaction. This is what characterizes a research-type specialist.
Topic 1.2. Research work structure
Research work is assessed not only by its theoretical scientific value, but also by the level of general methodological preparation of scientific material, which, first of all, is reflected in its composition.
The structure of a research work is the sequence of arrangement of its main parts, which include the main text (i.e. chapters and paragraphs), as well as all parts of the reference apparatus (tables, graphs, programs).
The student's research work must contain the following elements:
- title page;
– list of symbols (if necessary);
– introduction ( general characteristics work);
– the main part, represented by chapters;
- conclusion;
– list of used literature;
– applications (if necessary).
^ Title page is the first page of the work and is filled out according to strictly defined rules. The title page must contain the following information:
– full name of the educational institution where the research work is carried out;
– the title of the work, which should define the area of research conducted, be as brief as possible and accurately correspond to the content of the research;
– last name, first name, patronymic of the student;
– number and name of specialty;
– genre of work, for example, final qualifying work;
– last names, initials, scientific degrees and titles of the scientific supervisor and reviewer;
– the city in which the educational institution is located;
– a year of defending research work.
After the title page is placed table of contents, which lists all the titles of the research paper and indicates the pages from which they begin. The headings in the table of contents should exactly match the headings in the text. Headings may not be shortened or given in a different wording or sequence. The table of contents should be placed at the beginning of the work, as this makes it possible to immediately see its structure.
List of symbols, symbols, units and terms.
If specific terminology is adopted in the work, and less common abbreviations, new symbols, designations, etc. are used, then their list can be presented in the form of a separate list placed before the introduction.
The list usually looks like a column in which the abbreviation is given on the left (in alphabetical order), and its detailed explanation is given on the right.
If special terms, abbreviations, symbols, designations, etc. are repeated less than three times in the work, a list is not compiled; their explanation is given in the text at the first mention.
Introduction. In this part of the work, the relevance of the chosen topic, goals and objectives are briefly formulated. They formulate the object and subject of the research, indicate the research methods, the theoretical and practical value of the results obtained, the possibilities of their use (where, when, by whom). After determining the goal, a working hypothesis is formulated - a scientific assumption put forward to explain any factors, features, characteristics and anticipates the result of the study.
The introduction notes the signs of novelty of the research, its practical, theoretical and social significance. Scientific novelty can be determined in a study by the difference between the results obtained and the known ones; in this case, the degree of novelty should be classified (obtained for the first time, improved, further development ensured, etc.), and the essence of the new results should be revealed.
The novelty of the results of scientific research work is determined by the extent to which they develop ideas about a particular phenomenon, systematically clarify the essence of phenomena and processes, and how they contribute to the development of science and practice.
Scientific novelty is determined, for example, by the absence of similar studies, the novelty of the topic, the methodological solution, the originality of setting goals, objectives, and hypotheses.
At the end of the introduction, it is advisable to reveal the structure of the research work, list the main structural elements and justify the sequence of their arrangement.
In chapters the main part of the research work An analysis of theoretical material obtained from literary sources on this problem is given, the methodology and technology of the study are discussed in detail, the practical part is highlighted, and the results are generalized. The main part of the research work is divided into chapters, paragraphs, and paragraphs. Each element of the main part represents a semantically complete fragment of the work.
The main part of the work (represented by chapters) contains:
– review of literature on the topic and choice of research direction;
– description of information sources;
– presentation of the general concept and basic research methods;
– analysis and synthesis of research results.
The main part begins with a review of literary sources on the issue under study (Chapter I) and is defined as a theoretical section in which the student reveals the main stages in the development of scientific thought on the issue under consideration.
The purpose of the theoretical section is to demonstrate orientation in the research problem, substantiate the research hypothesis and the choice of methods to prove it.
The literature review begins with a presentation of the ideas of those authors who made a significant contribution to the development of the problem. Then it is advisable to analyze and compare the different points of view of the authors. A literary review should not turn into a continuous quotation.
In the theoretical section, the state of the problem at the moment should be briefly, but deeply enough, systematized, characterized by the subject of research: define the main categories and concepts, classify them, evaluate the achievements of domestic and foreign science on the problem under study. Referring to scientific publications, you need to briefly outline controversial points of view on various issues and give them your own assessment with a clearly expressed position of the student.
At the end of the review, you should briefly characterize the state of the problem and indicate insufficiently studied and controversial issues. This will make it possible to determine the relevance of the study;
It is advisable to end the review with a brief summary of the need for research in this direction and determine the subject of your research.
Thus, the text of the analytical review must meet the following requirements:
– reliability and completeness of information;
– consistency of the structure;
– clarity, clarity of presentation;
– compositional integrity;
– well-reasoned conclusions.
In the first part practical section(Chapter II) outlines the general concept and basic research methods, gives theoretical basis proposed methods, algorithms for solving problems, outlines their essence, gives a scientific and theoretical justification for the choice of direction of research, describes the organization and content of the research: characteristics of the subjects, specific methods, research procedures, criteria for assessing the results of the research.
The second part of the practical section (chapters III, IV) presents the data of the ascertaining (formative) experiment. The author's own research is presented, revealing what new things he contributed to the development of the task (results of study and training). The author needs to give his own assessment of the achievement of the goal and the completeness of solving the set tasks, an assessment of the reliability of the results obtained, their comparison with similar results of domestic and foreign authors, justification for the need for additional research, negative results leading to the need to stop further research on a specific issue.
The order of presentation of the material must be subordinated to the purpose of the study formulated by the author. The logical structure and purposefulness of the presentation of the main content is achieved only when each chapter has a specific purpose and is the basis for the next one.
When writing a work, the student is required to indicate the authors and sources from which he borrows materials. Quotes must be enclosed in quotation marks. Free presentation of borrowed text is allowed only with reference to the source of the borrowing.
At the end of each chapter, brief descriptive conclusions should be given, which allows you to clearly formulate the results of each stage of the study and makes it possible to “free” the main results from secondary details.
Conclusion– this is not just a list of the results obtained, but a synthesis of the information accumulated in the main part. Here it is important to consistently, logically present the results obtained and their relationship with the goals and objectives set in the introductory part of the work. The conclusion assumes a generalized assessment of the work done. At the same time, it is important to indicate what its main meaning is, what important by-product scientific results have been obtained, and what new tasks arise. In some cases, it becomes necessary to indicate ways for further research, as well as specific tasks that will have to be solved first. Practical suggestions significantly increase the value of theoretical material.
^ List of used literature. After the conclusion, it is customary to place a list of used literature - this is a list of sources of information on the basis of which the work was carried out (cited, mentioned in the text, used in the research process, but not reflected in the main text of the work). The list is compiled in alphabetical order.
If the author makes a reference to any facts or quotes the works of other authors, then he must indicate in the footnote where the cited materials were taken from. You should not include in the list those works that were not actually used. It is not recommended to place reference books, encyclopedias, or popular science publications on the list. If there is a need to use such publications, then they should be cited in footnotes in the text of the research work.
All materials that are not vital for understanding the scientific problem, auxiliary and additional materials that clutter the text of the main part are placed in applications and notes.
Topic 1.3. Main stages of the research process
Typically, research consists of three main stages.
^ First stage work includes:
Choosing a problem and topic;
Definition of the object and subject, goals and objectives;
Development of a research hypothesis.
^ Second stage work contains:
Selection of research methods;
Hypothesis testing;
Direct research;
Formulation of preliminary conclusions, their testing and clarification;
Justification of final conclusions and practical recommendations.
^ Third stage(final) is based on the implementation of the results obtained in practice. The work is presented in a literary form.
The logic of each study is specific. The researcher proceeds from the nature of the problem, the goals and objectives of the work, the specific material he has, the level of research equipment and his capabilities. What are the characteristics of each stage of work?
First stage consists of choosing an area of research, and the choice is determined by both objective factors (relevance, novelty, prospects, etc.) and subjective ones - the experience of the researcher, his scientific and professional interest, abilities, mindset, etc. Relevance of the research – a necessary requirement for any job. To justify its relevance means to explain why this particular topic is of interest at the moment, what are the reasons for turning to it, and what prevented it from being done earlier.
An indicator of the relevance of a topic is the presence of a problem in a given area of research.
There is a methodological pattern in the formulation of research topics and a fairly rapid change in one or more problematic aspects of the research topic. The topic lives for a long time, and its problematic aspects change both under the influence of scientific, technological and social progress, and under the influence of changes in ideological views on the nature of the phenomenon being studied.
^ Research problem is understood as a category meaning something unknown in science that remains to be discovered and proven. The problem is created by contradictions that require resolution. The research problem must be relevant, meet the needs of practice, and have an appropriate scientific solution. Justification of the relevance of the problem allows us to specify the research topic, which, in turn, must be carefully thought out and correctly formulated.
Subject- it reflects the problem in its characteristic features. A successful, semantically clear formulation of the topic clarifies the problem, outlines the scope of the study, and specifies the main idea, thereby creating the prerequisites for the success of the work as a whole.
^ Object of study - this is a set of connections, relationships and properties that exists objectively in theory and practice and serves as a source of information necessary for the researcher. This is what the research activity is aimed at (finding out what exactly is being considered in the study). The object of research is a process, phenomenon, etc. that is being studied, and the subject is a part of the object that can be transformed so that the object changes. In other words, the subject of the study indicates what it is devoted to.
^ Subject of study is more specific and includes only those connections and relationships that are subject to direct study in this work, setting the boundaries of scientific research. In each object, several research subjects can be distinguished. It is the subject of the research that determines the topic of the work (i.e., to indicate how the object is viewed, what relationships in it, properties, aspects, functions it reveals).
For example:
Object area – Russian and German languages.
The object of study is the mutual influence of languages on each other.
Subject of research: Borrowings in Russian from German.
Topic of the study: The impact of the development of science and technology in Germany on the Russian language.
That is subject research - a narrower area within the object of study in which the problem is considered.
Its purpose and objectives follow from the subject of the research.
Target it is formulated briefly and extremely precisely, semantically expressing the main thing that the researcher intends to do. One goal of work and several tasks that need to be solved to achieve this goal are formulated. When formulating a goal, you need to write it down in several versions and then determine the most suitable one. A goal denotes what needs to be done, and objectives are structured as statements aimed at achieving a goal. The goal is specified and developed in the research objectives. It is not recommended to formulate the goal as “Research...”, “Study...”, since these words indicate the means to achieve the goal, and not the goal itself.
^ First task, as a rule, it is associated with the identification, clarification, deepening, methodological justification of the essence, nature, structure of the object being studied (collection and analysis of information...).
Second - with an analysis of the real state of the subject of research, dynamics, internal contradictions of development (selection of material for...).
Third- with the abilities of transformation, modeling, experimental verification (development ....).
Fourth- with the identification of ways and means of increasing the efficiency of improving the phenomenon or process under study, i.e. with the practical aspects of the work, with the problem of managing the object under study.
After defining the goal, a working goal is formulated hypothesis- a scientific assumption put forward to explain any factors, features, characteristics and anticipate the result of the study. It is formulated on the basis of a literature review and is the organizing and guiding factor of the initial stage of the experiment, from the standpoint of which the research will be carried out. A hypothesis summarizes experimental data, guides research, and predicts its outcome. From the hypothesis follows a project for solving the problem.
A hypothesis should not be obvious and reflect explicit assumptions, since testing, much less researching them, makes no sense.
As a result of the research, the hypothesis can be confirmed or refuted. It is necessary to put forward a hypothesis in such a way that it covers different aspects and aspects of the phenomena and processes being studied.
In order for the hypothesis to be confirmed and the work to be practically significant, the author must have good theoretical training and awareness of the research problem.
A hypothesis is considered reliable only after practical verification and confirmation by relevant facts.
The first part of the hypothesis is descriptive, the second is explanatory, and the third is predictive. However, such a construction is not strictly necessary.
When formulating a hypothesis, constructions such as “if..., then...”, “provided that...” are usually used, i.e. those that focus on the problem and ways to solve it.
There are hypotheses:
Descriptive (the existence of a phenomenon is assumed);
Explanatory (revealing the reasons for it);
Descriptive and explanatory.
The hypothesis has certain requirements:
It should not include too many provisions: as a rule, one main one, rarely more;
It should not contain concepts and categories that are not unambiguous and not understood by the researcher himself;
When formulating a hypothesis, value judgments should be avoided; the hypothesis must correspond to the facts, be testable and applicable to a wide range of phenomena;
Requires impeccable stylistic design, logical simplicity,
Second phase research is of a clearly individualized nature and does not tolerate strictly regulated rules and regulations.
During the research, a program is drawn up. It should reflect:
What phenomenon is being studied;
By what indicators?
What evaluation criteria are applied;
What research methods are used;
The order of application of certain methods.
The organization and conduct of an experiment begins with a test check of experimental documentation: questionnaires, questionnaires, conversation programs, tables or matrices for recording and accumulating data.
Preliminary theoretical and practical conclusions must meet the following methodological requirements:
Be comprehensively argued, summarizing the main results of the study;
Flow from the accumulated material, being a logical consequence of its analysis and generalization.
When formulating, it is important to avoid two common mistakes:
A kind of marking time, when very superficial, limited conclusions of a partial order are drawn from a large and capacious empirical material;
An unreasonably broad generalization, when unduly broad conclusions are drawn from insignificant factual material.
Third stage - implementation of the results obtained in practice. The work is presented in a literary form.
^ Literary design of research materials - a labor-intensive and very responsible task, an integral part of scientific research.
To isolate and formulate the main ideas, provisions, conclusions and recommendations in an accessible, sufficiently complete and accurate manner is the main thing that a researcher should strive for in the process of literary preparation of materials.
This does not work out right away and not everyone succeeds, since the design of the work is always closely related to the refinement of certain provisions, clarification of logic, argumentation and elimination of gaps in substantiating the conclusions made, etc. Much here depends on the level of general development of the researcher’s personality, his literary abilities and the ability to formulate one’s thoughts.
When preparing research materials, you should adhere to the following general rules:
The title and content of chapters, as well as paragraphs, must correspond to the topic of the study and not go beyond its scope. The content of the chapters should exhaust the topic, and the content of the paragraphs should exhaust the chapter as a whole;
Initially, having studied the material for writing the next chapter, it is necessary to think through its plan, leading ideas, argumentation system and record all this in writing, without losing sight of the logic of the entire work. Then carry out clarification, polishing of individual semantic parts and sentences, make the necessary additions, rearrangements, remove unnecessary things, carry out editorial and stylistic corrections;
Check the format of references, compile a reference apparatus and a list of used literature (bibliography);
Do not rush into the final finishing, look at the material after a while, let it rest. At the same time, some reasoning and conclusions, as practice shows, will seem poorly designed, unsubstantiated and insignificant. They need to be improved or omitted, leaving only what is really necessary;
Avoid being scientific and playing with erudition. The inclusion of a large number of references and the abuse of special terminology make it difficult to understand the researcher’s thoughts and make the presentation unnecessarily complex. The style of presentation should combine scientific rigor and efficiency, accessibility and expressiveness;
The presentation of the material should be reasoned or polemical, critical, brief or thorough, detailed;
Before preparing the final version, test the work: review, discussion, etc. Eliminate shortcomings identified during testing.
^ Logical relationship between goals, objectives, results and conclusion
Definition of the object area, object and subject of research An object is a process or phenomenon that generates
problem situation and taken by the researcher for
studying.
An object is something that is within the framework, within the boundaries
object. An object is that part of scientific knowledge with
which the researcher is dealing with.
The subject of research is that aspect of the problem
by exploring which we come to know the whole object,
highlighting its main, most significant features.
The subject of dissertation research is most often
matches the definition of its topic or is very close to
him. Object and subject of research as scientific
categories are related as general and specific.
Definition of an object area, an object
The object domain is the sphere of science and practice, inwhich the object of study is located.
The object of research is the carrier of the problem, on
which the research activity is directed.
The object of research in pedagogy and psychology is a certain
process, some phenomenon or phenomenon that
exist independently of the subject of cognition and on which
the researcher's attention is drawn, for example: this is a process
formation of a new educational system,
effectiveness of a certain technology.
Subject of study
Subject of research – allocated in the object forspecial study of connection, relationship, dependence
between elements, mechanisms and conditions of the studied
process.
In the subject of research those properties or
relations in the object, which in this case are subject to
deep specialized study. In the same
various objects can be selected in an object
research.
The object contains in concentrated form
search directions, the most important tasks, their possibilities
solutions using appropriate means and methods.
Three stages of research
Staging stage - from choosing a topic to definingtasks and hypothesis development – to a large extent
can be carried out according to a common method for all studies
logical diagram (problem - topic - object - subject -
scientific facts – initial concept – leading idea and
design – hypothesis – research objectives). The logic of this
parts of scientific research, although not strictly unambiguous,
is still largely given.
Research stage - the logic of this stage is given
only in the most general form, It is very variable and
ambiguous (selection and design of methods and
search methods – hypothesis testing – design
preliminary conclusions - their testing and clarification
– drawing final conclusions).
Three stages of research
The final stage - the logic of this stage includestesting (discussion of conclusions, their presentation
public), design of work (reports, reports,
books, dissertations, recommendations, projects, etc.) and
implementation of results into practice.
The following is a cyclogram of the research process:
1. Staging stage
2,3,4. The actual research stage
5.6. The final stage Process cyclogram
research
According to V.I. Zagvyazinsky (3) stages of logic construction
pedagogical research and approximate
the sequence of steps in the first stage can be
imagine like this.
There are three such stages:
From choosing a topic to defining goals, objectives and
hypothesis development; he can largely
be carried out according to a common method for all studies
logical diagram (problem – topic – object – subject –
scientific facts – leading idea and plan – goals and
research objectives). The logic of this part of scientific
search, although not strictly unambiguous, but still in
largely given.
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
From choosing methods to drawing conclusions; –the logic of the second stage of work can only be specified
in the most general form (selection of methods – testing of hypotheses –
constructing preliminary conclusions - their
testing, experimental verification and clarification -
drawing final conclusions).
Includes implementation of the results obtained in practice
and literary design of the work. Towards implementation
results in practice are equal to participation in
various conferences at which reports are presented
results, as well as publication of articles and abstracts.
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
Step 1 – selecting the object area of study,it's either:
a) scope of practical activity (training
a certain subject in certain classes
– junior, middle, senior), or
b) its reflection in the areas of scientific issues
(developmental learning theory, principle
individual approach, etc.).
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
Step 2 – identifying the problem and research topic. INEssentially, the topic must contain a problem.
Therefore, for conscious selection and
formulation of the topic requires highlighting
research problem.
A problem is something unknown in science. Essence
problems - a contradiction between scientific facts and
their theoretical understanding, between competing
scientific theories.
Correct formulation of the problem is the key to success
scientific search.
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
Step 3 – the further process of developing the problem is connectedwith the definition of the object and subject of research.
“The object of research is a set of such properties and
relationships that exist independently of
cognizer, objectively, but is reflected by him,” –
reminds V.I. Zagvyazinsky. He considers
unlawful and erroneous selection as
object of the following area of objective reality:
“teaching Russian language in primary school”,
it would be more correct to call the object “process management”
student learning..." or "pedagogical guidance
mastery..."
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
In each of the objects you can, as a rule,highlight a lot of research subjects.
For example: The object area of didactics is
the learning process as a whole.
A. Objects can be:
design of teaching by the teacher;
interaction between teacher and student;
assimilation of knowledge and methods of activity;
development of students' thinking, either those or
other personal qualities.
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
–Subjects of research (for the second option
object):
ways of setting a cognitive task
teacher and the conditions for its awareness and acceptance
student;
ratio of algorithmic and free
constructed elements in pedagogical
leadership and educational activities;
etc.
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
Step 4 – the main tasks are identified from the subjectstudies, they are usually put forward 3 - 4.
Most often, the first task is to identify the essence,
nature, structure, laws of functioning and
development of the object being studied;
second – disclosure common methods transformation
object, building its models;
third – creation, development of specific methods
pedagogical influence, practical
recommendations
Stages of constructing the logic of pedagogical research
Step 5 – the researcher must anticipate the result,define in basic terms the result of the work: form
such anticipation is a hypothesis. Distinguish
working intermediate and scientific (real)
hypotheses.
Characteristics of the research stages
At the staging stage, they clearly dominatequalitative approaches and personality characteristics
researched, although they, in turn, rely on
some quantitative characteristics (selection of those
or other values, academic performance, victories at
Olympiads, nature and number of offenses).
At the exploratory stage, quantitative and
qualitative characteristics and methods appear in
unity (they mutually determine each other).
At the final stage, the role of quantitative
indicators increases even more, although the decisive role
continues to play their content (quality)
interpretation.
Sequence of research activities in the object-subject block
Separation from the object domain and the practical sphere of the process,which will be studied - the object of study
Awareness of this process in the structure of more complex processes
reality
Identification of the subject of research (or subjects), i.e. aspects
(cognitive positions, reporting and observation points), connections,
relationships, mutual influences, methods of activity that will become
be studied deeply.
Awareness of the need to conduct all research within the framework
subject.
Determination of the empirical basis of the study (place, institution,
sample type, etc.)
Selection and formulation of topics, problems and justification of their relevance
The research topic is the area of productionresearch activities.
A problem is a contradictory situation that has arisen in
the result of the work that determined the topic of research and
requiring its permission as a result of research
work. The problem determines the research tactics and strategy.
Determining the relevance of the research is mandatory
requirement for any research work.
The relevance may consist, for example, of the need
obtaining new data; need to check new
methods, etc. The relevance of the topic is always justified with
taking into account the practical need to resolve the issues
questions.
Justification of the relevance of the study
The relevance of the research is the degree to which it isimportance at the moment and in this situation
to solve a specific problem, task or
question.
The relevance of the research problem is
demand for studying and solving this
problems in society.
Justification of the relevance of the study is
explanation of the need to study this topic
and conducting research in the process of general
knowledge. Justification of relevance
research
The rationale for the relevance of the research topic is
basic requirement for research work.
Relevance of the research topic
due to the following factors:
filling any gaps in science;
further development of the problem in modern
conditions;
own point of view on an issue on which there is no single
opinions;
generalization of accumulated experience;
summarizing and promoting knowledge on the main
question;
posing new problems in order to attract
public attention.
The relevance of the research work may be
in the need to obtain new data, verify
completely new methods, etc.
choose your own topic:
Analytical review of the achievements of a particular scientific
areas under the authorship of competent specialists.
Guided by the principle of repetition. This principle
implies following the topic according to the logic of what has already been done
research, but using improved
research methods that would allow us to clarify and
expand existing knowledge about the object and subject, and
also check them out.
Topics may be previously put forward to science
hypotheses that need clarification, testing and
proof. A number of practical steps and techniques to help
choose your own topic:
Search method. It provides for familiarization
researcher with primary sources: special
literature, the latest works in one way or another
scientific branch, as well as related branches of science, and
formation of a topic based on an analysis of current
problems of these related industries or disciplines.
Theoretical synthesis of existing studies,
theories, practical research results, critical analytical and descriptive materials.
The search for a topic can be carried out in “natural” conditions
scientific and creative communication of a novice researcher
with competent specialists in the chosen field
research. Objectives of the study
The purpose of the research is an ideal vision of the result, which
directs human activity.
Researcher to achieve the goal and
testing the provisions of the hypothesis he formulated
identifies specific research objectives.
Most typical goals:
Determining the characteristics of phenomena not previously studied;
Identification of the relationship between certain phenomena;
Study of the development of phenomena;
Description of a new phenomenon;
Generalization, identification of general patterns;
Creation of classifications.
You can set a goal:
reveal...
install…
justify...
Clarify... develop...
Develop…. Research problem
The task of the study is to choose ways and means for
achieving the goal in accordance with the hypothesis put forward.
Objectives are best formulated as statements.
what needs to be done for the goal to be achieved.
Setting goals is based on dividing the goal
research on sub-goals.
The list of tasks is based on the principle of least
complex to the most complex, labor-intensive, and their number
determined by the depth of the study.
Tasks are usually divided into practical and educational:
Practical tasks are designed to help
direct transformation of the environment
reality.
Cognitive tasks include a sublevel of empirical
cognitive tasks. Hypothesis
Having set tasks, defining a system of concepts, a concept.
The researcher is preparing a “breakthrough”, his own, albeit small,
opening, and then its instrumentation and verification will follow
truth and embodiment.
The form of such anticipation, prediction of results
a hypothesis is an educated guess about how
in what way and by what means the desired result can be obtained.
Movement occurs in the form of a hypothesis
to new, deeper generalizations based on foresight.
Foresight is carried out in the form of retrospection, analysis
past, identifying its trends and extrapolation,
extension of these trends into the future. Hypothesis formulation
A hypothesis is defined as a scientifically based
assumption about what is directly observable
phenomenon.
A hypothesis is a kind of epicenter of research,
carried out at both macro and micro levels.
New knowledge arises and develops in the form of a hypothesis,
new theory. It is in the hypothesis that it is synthetically presented
content and procedural side of creative search:
the original conceptual framework, idea and intent of it
implementation. It is advisable to formulate the hypothesis according to the scheme"
If..., then..., since..." - which allows you to implement
descriptive, explanatory and prognostic functions
hypotheses. Main properties of the hypothesis:
Uncertainty of true value.
Focus on revealing this
phenomena.
Making a guess about the results
problem resolution.
Opportunity to put forward a “draft” solution
Problems Stages of hypothesis development
A hypothesis is a process of developing thought.
Of course, to give a general example of constructing a hypothesis for
It is not possible in all cases of life.
This is due to the fact that the conditions for developing a hypothesis
depend on the uniqueness of practical activities,
and also on the specifics of the problem under consideration.
However, it is possible to determine the general boundaries of the stages,
which the thought process goes through in a hypothesis.
The main stages of developing a hypothesis are:
1) putting forward a hypothesis;
2) development of a hypothesis;
3) hypothesis testing.
Let us consider the content and features of each stage in more detail.
in detail. Proposing a hypothesis
To put forward a hypothesis, it is necessary to have
some set of facts related to
observed phenomenon that would justify
the probability of a certain assumption, explained
unknown. Therefore, the construction of a hypothesis is related to
first of all, with the collection of facts that have
attitude towards the phenomenon that we are explaining,
and do not coincide with the existing explanation.
Based on the collected facts, it is expressed
assumption about what the thing being studied is
phenomenon, that is, a hypothesis is formulated in the narrow sense
words.
The assumption is made as a result of logical
processing the collected facts. Facts based on which
a hypothesis is put forward, can be comprehended logically in
form of deduction, induction or analogy. Nomination
assumptions constitute the main content of a hypothesis.
a) the assumption should not be logical
contradictory;
b) the assumption must be fundamental
verifiable.
There are two types of verifiability - practical and
principled.
The assumption is practically verifiable if
it can be verified at a given time or at
a relatively short period of time.
The assumption is fundamentally verifiable,
when can it be verified (if not in the near future)
time, then someday). A guess, to become a hypothesis, must
meet the following requirements:
c) the assumption should not contradict previously
established facts to explain which it
intended. If already at the stage of hypothesis formation
facts contradict the assumption, it follows
resort to a different formulation.
d) the assumption must explain as broadly as possible
circle of phenomena. This requirement allows two or more
hypotheses that explain the same range of phenomena, choose
the most optimal. Hypothesis development
The development of a hypothesis is associated with the derivation of logical
consequences. Considering the hypothesis put forward to be true,
a number of consequences are deduced from it, which
must exist if the intended
cause. Logical consequences derived from hypotheses
cannot be identified with consequences - links in the cause-and-effect chain of phenomena, always chronologically
following the cause that caused them.
Comparison of the consequences derived from the assumption with
established facts of reality gives
the opportunity to either refute the hypothesis or confirm
its truth.
This is done through the process of testing a hypothesis. Requirements for hypotheses
1. Should not contain concepts that have not been received
empirical interpretation, otherwise it is not testable.
2. Should not contradict previously established scientific
facts.
3. Must be simply formulated.
4. A good hypothesis applies to a wider range of people
phenomena than the area in which directly
research is being carried out.
5. Must be verifiable in principle for a given
level of theoretical knowledge, methodological equipment and
practical research opportunities. Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis testing usually occurs through
practices.
The hypothesis is generated by the needs of practice, and mainly
practice decides whether a hypothesis is true or false.
When testing a hypothesis, logical logic is also used.
facilities. Testing a hypothesis, turning it into a reliable one
knowledge is a complex and lengthy process. Therefore it
cannot be reduced to any one logical action.
When testing a hypothesis, various forms and
ways to confirm or refute it.
hypotheses.
The essence of this method is that
alleged individual facts or phenomena during
subsequent cognitions are confirmed (or not
confirmed) by observational practice. Direct confirmation (denial)
hypotheses
Logical confirmation (refutation) proceeds
indirectly, since phenomena that took place are known
in the past or existing at the present time, but
inaccessible to direct sensory perception.
Logical proof (refutation) of a hypothesis in
depending on the method of justification, it can be carried out in
form of direct or indirect evidence (refutation).
Direct confirmation (refutation) of the hypothesis occurs
by confirming or refuting the derived logical
consequences of newly discovered facts.
The logical process of deducing consequences from what has been put forward
assumptions and justifications for truth or falsity
hypotheses, as already noted, are carried out very often
in the form of a conditional categorical inference. Direct confirmation (denial)
hypotheses
Indirect proof proceeds through refutation
(confirmation) and exclusion of all false (true)
assumptions on the basis of which they claim
reliability (falsity) of the only remaining
assumptions.
The conclusion in this conclusion can be regarded as
reliable if
first, an exhaustive series has been constructed
assumptions explaining the phenomenon under study,
secondly, in the process of testing hypotheses,
(confirmed) all false (true) assumptions.
Suggestion indicating the remaining cause, in
in this case will be unique, and expressed in it
knowledge will no longer appear as problematic, but as
reliable. The scientific nature of the hypothesis
Guess and conjecture can
to a certain extent subjective
character, rely on intuitive feeling,
individual providence; the hypothesis is
more of an assumption
justified, using accumulated
scientific knowledge about a particular subject
area and its laws, it
extrapolates this knowledge, assumes
the influence of the known on the unknown, and
vice versa. This is what science is all about
hypotheses.
.Hypothesis and theory
elements:
-basis, i.e. original, accumulated by science
knowledge, data obtained from observation,
experimentally or by other means,
serving as the basis for
assumptions;
-difficulty, inconsistency of knowledge and
some facts obtained by science,
conscious, but not explained by the basis
(present knowledge), i.e. problematic
situation. Hypothesis and theory
The structural hypothesis consists of the following
elements:
- the assumption put forward
(formulated) to explain this
fact, to resolve the difficulty;
-consequences drawn from this
assumptions and compared with
reality;
-conclusion about truth or falsity
assumptions. Types of research
The study may be
descriptive, suggest
obtaining empirical information,
giving relatively holistic
an idea of the phenomenon being studied,
or analytical, aimed
for analysis, finding out the reasons behind
at the heart of the phenomenon and conditioning
his character. Types of research
The study may be
reconnaissance (pilot, aerobatics), if
are divided into one-time ones (when the problem being solved
never come back) and
repeated, as well as monitoring (longitudinal)
when, according to a given scenario, research through
a certain period of time is repeated or
is carried out regularly (like, say, a census
population). A variety of repeated
research turns out to be panel studies,
when contacted after a certain period
time to the same people. Types of research
Field studies are carried out in normal,
natural conditions for the community being studied.
Laboratory - in specially created conditions
for research (for example, focus group).
The study may be
empirical: based on actions, deeds,
people's behavior and/or
theoretical, based on essential
properties, conditions identified in previous
research or otherwise constructed without
direct appeal to empirical
reality.
So,
To
methodological
parameters
pedagogical research includes:
problem, topic, object, tasks, hypothesis and
protected provisions, and the main criteria
the qualities of pedagogical research are
criteria of relevance, novelty, theoretical and
practical significance.
Specified
elements
scientific
apparatus
research is usually located in a dissertation
or
qualifying
work
approximately
V
following sequence: Parameters of pedagogical research
justification of the relevance of the study,
formulation of a scientific problem,
purpose of the study,
object of study,
subject of study,
research objectives,
research hypothesis,
methodological basis of the study,
research methods,
stages of research,
theoretical novelty,
practical significance,
reliability of the research results,
provisions submitted for defense,
testing of work. Assignments for practical classes
1. Should educational research take precedence?
practice? Under what conditions is this possible?
2. Is it legal in pedagogical research?
use the concept: “human resource”,
“human capital”, “knowledge industry”?
3.What is the difference between the subjectivity of a scientific researcher, which is considered undesirable and
prevents the achievement of truth, from subjectivity
– the influence of personality, its characteristics, attitudes on
methodology and results of the study?
Lecture outline
1. Modern directions of computerization of the tourism business
Information technologies occupy an extremely important place in the functioning of any tourism enterprise. In addition to solving traditional office automation problems, common to almost all types of enterprises (use of local networks, multimedia technologies, organizations electronic document management etc.), it is possible to use tools specific to the tourism sector, for example, international ticket booking systems and hotel room reservations.
If we try to structurally describe the scheme of using modern information technologies in a tourism enterprise , the following can be distinguished three levels: intra-corporate; intercorporate; interactive technologies for interaction with external consumers and clients.
TO intra-corporate The level should include the use of information technology to automate individual workplaces (development and implementation of automated workplaces), as well as the activities of the main structural divisions of a tourism enterprise (for example, accounting, marketing department, etc.). Highest degree automation of information processing at this level can be considered creation of a corporate information system, allowing effective data exchange between all structural divisions of the enterprise.
On intercorporate level, various forms of interconnection between enterprises are carried out: for example, the creation of extranets (the association of corporate information systems several enterprises with the possibility of using such a joint network by all users of each enterprise). This also includes Business-To-Business e-commerce, as well as the organization of virtual enterprises. The use of such technologies makes it possible to significantly reduce management and support staff at enterprises, speed up the process of organizing tours, optimally solve the problems of managing financial flows, and use new promising channels for the distribution of goods and services.
Interactive technologies for interaction with external consumers and clients allow for research of the market and consumer preferences (Internet marketing), promotion of goods, services or brand on the market (Internet advertising), direct sale of goods or services to the end consumer, after-sales information support for the client. A characteristic feature of this type of information technology is the breadth of the audience covered and the initial focus on the maximum number of potential clients.
It should be noted that the levels considered are quite arbitrary.
2. Information technologies used in the work of tourism enterprises
The most important role in the implementation of information technology in a tourism enterprise is played by internet/intranet technologies. The use of information technology is focused primarily on automation of professional work specific specialists. We can propose the following approach to the classification of technical means used in a modern office of a tourism enterprise: computers; network hardware; means of communication; information input/output devices; information storage devices; multimedia devices and virtual reality; office equipment; additional funds.
Employees of tourism enterprises can use the following computer classes:
· Pocket, having small sizes and equipped with a liquid crystal display, means of connecting to desktop computers (ports and (or) network cards), a built-in modem and a connector for connecting a mobile phone. The main purpose of such computers is to provide the owner with the opportunity to use computer communication technologies at any time: receive or send e-mail, view stock quotes, contact the office of his company, draw up a simple document. The main categories of users are managers at various levels, entrepreneurs;
· portable computers (laptops), significantly larger in size than pocket ones (they are more like a briefcase or a folder), and in functionality not inferior to desktop models. The element base used in the production of laptops is almost similar to the element base of stationary personal computers, but all the main devices (processor, motherboard, HDD, modem, etc.) have smaller dimensions (and, accordingly, higher cost). Laptops are equipped with LCD monitors, modern storage devices (CD-ROM, DVD drive, etc.), modems, ports for connecting external devices, network cards, multimedia (sound card, microphone, speaker systems), a trackball or other manipulator is usually installed instead of a mouse. The software is standard, no different from software for stationary systems. Users of such systems are people who constantly need a computer “at hand”, who often travel and go on business trips, who regularly use modern communication technologies and electronic means of presentations;
· personal computers(PC), the most common and popular in their desktop version. Such computers are used in student classrooms, in corporate offices, and as home systems. The market offers a wide range of computer models, differing in their functionality and cost.
Directly adjacent to the PC are the so-called workstations. Large computers (mainframes) are usually used in cases where it is necessary to achieve high performance and speed of an information system with a large volume of processed information. Such computers can be used as central elements of large corporate networks and serve as a server for a large number of terminals or clients.
network hardware designed for organizing and maintaining computer networks and includes hubs, switches and routers.
Hub usually used in local computer networks with a radial topology and is designed to recognize conflicts between network elements and eliminate them, as well as for synchronization information flows within the network.
Switch- hardware, providing reception, control of receipt and direction of information packages.
Router designed to organize interconnection between several local networks, unite them into higher-level networks, and distribute information flows between network segments.
Communication means are designed to provide communication with the “outside world”, transmission business information in the shortest possible time. Such means include telephones and fax machines, telephone exchanges(mini-PBX), pagers, trunking communication systems, modems, satellite communication systems (for example, DirecPC kits).
Information input/output devices. For automated input of information from paper into computer systems, in addition to the traditional keyboard, scanners(color and monochrome) of various designs. An important characteristic of a scanner is its resolution.
Storage devices are intended for storing data in electronic form on magnetic or optical media.
Streamers- devices for recording information on magnetic tape. Devices for recording (reading-writing) CDs (CD-R, CD-RW) make it possible to produce it on special matrices. Magneto-optical disks represent magnetic disks, reading and writing information is done using a laser.
Multimedia technologies provide a comprehensive (in several types at the same time) presentation of information. Due to their use, the process of interaction between the user and the computer is simplified and closer to natural. An example of the implementation of such technologies is a film with subtitles: video sequence (visual presentation of information) + soundtrack(audio information) + subtitles (text presentation of information). Among multimedia devices can be called sound cards, Acustic systems, CD-ROM drives, microphones, etc.
Virtual reality devices make it possible to bring the computer-user interface even closer to the natural one and add tactile and stereovisual effects to it. Such devices include special helmets, gloves, and suits.
TO office equipment In addition to the telephones and fax machines described above, they include duplicating and copying devices designed to obtain copies of information presented on paper.
TO additional devices can be attributed:
· network filters, designed to smooth out voltage surges in power supply networks (which is why complex electronic equipment usually fails);
· uninterruptible power supplies, ensuring the maintenance of computer systems in working order for a certain time after the loss of voltage in the electrical network;
· biometric devices, allowing user identification before starting to work with the system (for example, by fingerprint or retinal image).
The most important class of software that determines the capabilities and principles of further construction of the information system of a tourism enterprise is system software and, in particular, the operating system (OS). Under operating system understand a set of programs designed to control all computer devices and organize the relationship (interface) between the computer and the user. In addition to the OS, the following can be used service packages:
· programs Maintenance computer, for example, to identify areas on a hard drive that are unsuitable for recording information (Disk Doctor from the Norton Utilities package);
· shell programs, simplifying the process of interaction between the user and the computer, for example DOS Navigator, Norton Commander, Windows Commander etc. The use of modern operating systems with a convenient graphical interface, such as Windows 98 or Windows NT, practically eliminates the need to install such software;
· antivirus programs, designed to protect information systems from infection by computer viruses and combat them (for example, Doctor Web, Norton Antivirus, VirusBlockade, etc.);
· archiving programs, designed to compress information stored on magnetic media in order to save space (for example, WinZip, RAR, ARJ, etc.).
The next most important category software is application software. Application software designed to effectively solve user problems. Application software is allocated general and special purpose.
For larger enterprises, where the capabilities provided by the considered package are not enough, Microsoft offers a system Back Office, including the following components:
network operating system Windows system NT Server;
· powerful database management tool Microsoft data SQL Server;
· server for organizing work with the Internet - Internet Information Server;
· email and news server - Microsoft Exchange Server;
· a tool for administering Internet access - Microsoft Proxy Server;
· computer system administration tool - System Management Server.
When organizing an information exchange system, it is advisable to use the concept of electronic document management. To solve such problems, so-called document management systems(Document Management Systems - DMS). Their functions:
· organization of document storage (information distribution and link system or centralized database);
· search by attributes and (or) based on content;
· control over the use of documents (with the possibility of blocking);
· differentiation of user access powers;
· linking documents;
· support for complex compound documents;
· creating documents using the system itself or external applications;
· automatic update related documents;
· management of multimedia elements embedded in a document.
In addition to these basic components, the office can use:
· database management systems (DBMS) - complexes of software and language tools designed for creating, maintaining and using databases;
· automated information entry and image recognition tools, such as Fine Reader. Provide processing and transformation of information entered using a scanner;
· computer translation systems that allow you to automatically translate texts into various languages: Stylus, Prompt;
· Fax support programs, such as WinFax, which allow you to use fax modems to send and receive fax messages;
· graphic image processing tools (CorelDRAW, Adobe Photoshop, etc.), allowing you to work with graphic information, for example, in preparation promotional materials, development of printed products;
· Web design, used in the preparation of information intended for posting on the Internet. Microsoft offers the FrontPage editor for these purposes;
· publishing systems, such as Ventura Publisher or QuarkXPress, designed for computer layout of magazines, advertising brochures and other printed materials;
· automated systems accounting, allowing you to more effectively carry out this type of activity: 1C Accounting, Bukhkompleks, BEST, Anzhelika, Parus and many others;
· automated trade and warehouse accounting systems (1C Trade and Warehouse, BEST), necessary for organizing trade activities within a tourism enterprise;
automation software marketing research, which allows, using software implemented mathematical and statistical methods and algorithms, to effectively solve emerging problems in the field of market research, for example, the Project Expert program;
· complex automated enterprise management systems (1C Enterprise, Galaktika), which allow solving several problems at once within the framework of one software package;
· software for activities in the field of tourism organization, which is undoubtedly one of the most important components specifically for a tourism company.
Examples of software for tourism enterprises include “Self-Tour”, “TurWin”, “Turbo-Tour”, “Tourist Office”, “Travel Office 2000”, “MasterTour”, etc. More information about these packages can be found in specialized literature.
One of the most promising areas for the implementation of information technologies in enterprises and organizations is computer networks. Computer network - a set of computers interconnected by information transmission channels. Information transfer is carried out on the basis of so-called network protocols. Network protocol - this is a set of rules that completely defines all parameters of data exchange between computers (from data transfer speed to addressing methods when transporting individual messages). Protocols define how messages are transmitted and errors handled in a network, and also allow the development of standards that are not tied to a specific hardware platform.
Corporate computer networks operate within individual enterprises and organizations. Most often, local computer networks of enterprises act as corporate networks.
Under local computer network (LAN-Local Area Network) understand a computer network geographically located in a limited area (in one or several buildings) and connecting a small number of computers (usually up to several dozen). A local computer network may have tire, star-shaped or ring topology. There are homogeneous (homogeneous) and heterogeneous (heterogeneous) computer networks When created in an enterprise computer network corporate scale uses technical, software, information and organizational means.
3. Internet/Internet technologies in tourism
Before talking about the specifics of using Internet/Intranet technologies in tourism enterprises, it is necessary to briefly explain some basic concepts. The first of them is the Internet. One of the first relatively strict definitions Internet from a technical point of view, given by John S. Quarterman in The Matrix: Computer Networks and Conferencing Systems Worldwide (Digital Press, 1990): “The Internet is a metanetwork consisting of many networks that operate under the TCP/IP family of protocols... united through gateways, using a single address space and name space.” The IP protocol is responsible for addressing network nodes, and the TCP protocol ensures delivery of messages to the desired address (i.e., it controls the establishment of a reliable connection between two machines, selects the optimal packet size for transmitted data, and retransmits information in case of failure).
The unique numbers that are used to identify computers on the Internet are called IP addresses. When a user tries to establish a connection with any Internet subscriber, his computer contacts the so-called name server of his domain - the computer responsible for distributing names within this domain, which, if necessary (in the absence of information about the required domain name), - to to the name server of the next higher domain, and so on until the final IP address of the required host is received. The IP address is always primary; all computers work only with this addressing system. When a user identifies a specific computer using a domain name, the name server responsible for the corresponding address area (domain) translates that name into an IP address. Thus, we can conclude that DNS is distributed database data located on many computers - domain name system servers.
Every object on the Internet has its own unique identifier - universal resource locator, URL (Uniform Resource Locator). The URL includes the method for accessing the resource (http, gopher, ftp, etc.), network address resource (host and domain name), full path to a file on the server, sometimes a port number can be used (an additional parameter that the network administrator or provider usually informs the user about the need to specify).
Net intranet can be defined as the implementation of services similar to Internet services, but based on local network and for the exchange of information between users within this network. The advantages of a corporate intranet network include:
· relatively low costs for its organization and maintenance;
· possibility of implementation on various technical bases, including heterogeneous ones;
· simplifying access to various information for a wide range of employees;
· acceleration of access to remote units;
· the ability to differentiate access to information for different user groups;
· uniformity of the user interface;
· reduction of time spent on installing and configuring software;
· opportunity sharing information resources system and software;
· possibility of immediate integration with other networks (based on the TCP/1P protocol);
· readiness to connect to the Internet;
· reducing costs for software licensing and accompanying documentation;
· accelerating the process of creating documents (while simultaneously reducing the cost of their development);
· ease of organization of electronic archives;
· the ability to use multimedia technologies when organizing interaction between users within the network (television and video conferences, conference calls, etc.).
Access to the Internet is provided by so-called Internet service providers (ISP, Internet Service Provider). To access the Internet, you just need to connect your computer to the provider's computer. Let's list the main opportunities that Internet connection gives a tourist enterprise:
· organization of a virtual office;
· selling your services online;
· fast and easy access to various reference materials (catalogs, reference books, encyclopedias, etc.);
· work with clients from geographically remote regions;
access to a convenient and cheap communication system ( Email, digital telephone communications, video phone, etc.);
· booking hotel rooms and tickets via the Internet;
· conducting marketing research online;
· participation in electronic fairs, exhibitions, exchanges, auctions, etc.;
· non-cash remote settlements;
· work online 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, etc.;
· use of electronic databases with information on countries and destinations, obtaining operational weather forecasts in different countries of the world, traffic schedules various types transport;
· obtaining up-to-date information on tariffs and prices for hotels, restaurants, various carriers and other tourist services;
· search for partners;
· The main areas of application and capabilities of the Internet for the average consumer of a tourism product are the following:
· use of the services of any tourism enterprise, including geographically remote ones, representing the country to which the client would like to go;
· familiarization with the offers of most travel companies without leaving home;
· viewing schedules of various vehicles, ticket prices, planning your route;
· booking tickets for vehicles;
· choosing a hotel in the desired country, booking a room in advance;
· purchasing the necessary goods;
· ordering an excursion or escort;
· payment for goods and services;
· familiarization with information about countries, weather forecasts for any point on the globe;
· use of Internet search engines;
· use of email.
There are various sites related to the tourism sector on the Internet. The following classification can be proposed:
· search engines and portals general purpose with sections dedicated to tourism;
· special tourist sites and portals;
· tour operator websites;
· travel agent websites;
· websites of regional tourism organizations;
· global reservation systems;
· websites of transport companies;
· websites of accommodation facilities;
· personal pages.
Tour operator websites may also have subsystems for interaction with travel agents.
Having created a corporate website, the enterprise must resolve the issue of hosting (placing the website on one of the Internet servers). Large enterprises may have their own server. There are tourism enterprises that operate exclusively on the Internet. The largest of them is Expedia (www.expedia.coin).
Websites of regional tourism organizations provide information support for incoming tourism for individual states or territories.
Resources global booking system sites provide services to both tourism enterprises and individual users. Major international booking systems include Saber, Galileo, Amadeus and Worldspan. Booking system Amadeus- one of the most popular in the world and, of course, a leader in the European market. Amadeus has its head office in Madrid. It is the center of communications and determines the overall marketing strategy, corporate and financial directions. The Product Development Center is located in Nice (France). Its activities include product development and marketing, customer support and database maintenance. Main computer, which by some estimates is the most powerful non-military computer in Europe, is located in Erding, Germany. It is the largest private database center with over 2,500 transactions per second.
Russian travel agencies have been using the Amadeus system since 1991. In the Republic of Belarus, terminals of this system appeared a little later. Amadeus offers the broadest and most comprehensive range of services in the travel and tourism industry, and provides complete management tools accessible from anywhere.
Amadeus Air is a system that provides real-time access to flight schedules of a huge number of airlines, guaranteeing completely accurate, up to the last minute, corrected information about flights to any destination, flight connections and availability of seats.
Amadeus Fare Guote - The largest yet easy to use airline fare database. All necessary information available with a single query, so there is no need to view the results of additional queries on the display. There is a mechanism for quickly and easily obtaining combined prices for complex routes, taking into account possible discounts.
Amadeus Hotels offers accurate accommodation information for more than 51 thousand hotels and inns worldwide. Additionally, this system provides information about the location of the hotel, availability, additional services and special prices.
Amadeus Cars implements the possibility of booking cars in real time in major companies, rental in thousands settlements many countries of the world. You can obtain information about special rates and offers, quotas and tariffs in local currency.
When working with clients, this system allows you to automate the following set of operations:
· receiving and storing data about the client (“customer profile”), such as contact phone numbers, passport details and wishes regarding the upcoming trip;
· automated generation of tickets and other travel documents;
· immediate issuance of an invoice taking into account the travel route;
· automated records that electronically link the company to the selected banking system.
Amadeus also offers a system for self-booking and creating a tour via the Internet (www.amadeus.net).
System Worldspan Bookings. Considered the most dynamically developing computer system bookings in the world. The terms of use for the desktop version of Worldspan are very similar to the operating principles of Amadeus.
Saber reservation system(www.sabre.com) is most widespread in North America.
Websites of transport companies provide data on vehicle schedules, ticket prices and availability.
TO accommodation sites These include primarily hotel and hotel sites. There are also resources dedicated exclusively to booking hotels and hotels, containing databases both for individual regions and for all regions of the world.
Personal pages can be created by any Internet user and contain information posted by the author about countries, routes, reviews of the work of travel agencies, recommendations for travelers and any other data. Support of mailing lists, teleconferences, chats is possible. Any paid services. We can strongly recommend that travel companies actively work on the creation and “promotion” of their Web sites, and make more intensive use of the Internet for marketing activities, advertising their products, and searching for new partners. First of all, it should be noted that there are extremely wide opportunities for selling tours online.
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