MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION FSBEI HPE "KUBAN STATE AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY" Department "Processes and machines in agribusiness" FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH ACTIVITY Course of lectures In the field of training 06/19/01 "Industrial ecology and bio technologies" Krasnodar KubSAU 2015 Compiled by: Trubilin E.I. 1 Fundamentals of scientific research: a course of lectures / compiled by Trubilin E.I. - Krasnodar: KubGAU, 2015. - 33 p. action - The course of lectures is intended for graduate students in the field of preparation 06/19/01 “Industrial ecology and biotechnology” Reviewed and approved by the methodological commission of the Faculty of Mechanization _____________, protocol No. Chairman of the methodological commission ___________ FSBEI HPE “Kuban State Agrarian University”, 2015 2 LECTURE 1 Questions : The science. Basic provisions. Definition of science. Science and other forms of mastering reality. Scientific method. Definition and basic concepts. Definition of science Science is the most important element of spiritual culture. It is characterized by the following interrelated features: 1) a set of objective and substantiated knowledge about nature, man, and society; 2) activities aimed at obtaining new reliable knowledge; 3) a set of social institutions that ensure the existence, functioning and development of knowledge and cognition. The most important functions of science are determined by the following characteristics: 1. Productive power. 3 2. The sphere of spiritual production. 3. Worldview. 4. Education. Classification of sciences is the disclosure of their mutual connections on the basis of certain principles and the expression of these connections in the form of a logical arrangement or series. The classification of sciences reveals the relationship between natural, technical, social sciences and philosophy. Currently, the following sciences are distinguished: 1) natural sciences and mathematics (mechanics, physics, biology, soil science, geography, hydrometeorology, geology, ecology, etc.); 2) humanities and socio-economic sciences (cultural studies, theology, philology, philosophy, linguistics, journalism, bibliology, history, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, regional studies, economics, art, physical education, commerce, agricultural economics, statistics , art, law, etc.); 4 3) technical sciences (construction, printing, telecommunications, metallurgy, mining, electronics and microelectronics, geodesy, radio engineering, architecture, etc.); 4) agricultural sciences (agronomy, animal science, veterinary medicine, agricultural engineering, forestry, fisheries, etc. ). Agricultural sciences are divided into several sections depending on the object of study (mechanization, soil science, agriculture, plant growing, entomology, phytopathology, plant protection, etc.), but at the same time there are fundamental and applied sciences among them. The essence of fundamental sciences is the discovery and study of objective laws and phenomena that exist in nature. Applied sciences are characterized by the fact that their task is to create something that did not previously exist in nature. For example, biotechnology, forestry, etc. 5 The essence of scientific research work is not to constantly select examples that confirm a scientific theory, but to look for new ways to critically test it. Attempts to refute a theory should be most effective precisely in terms of confirming its truth and scientific character. It is no coincidence that in each of his new experiments, a scientist, making a choice, tries to clarify the boundaries of the theory and test the scope of its applicability. In most cases, the definition of a research topic is based on identifying the problem. It is usually more difficult to formulate than to solve. At the stage of choosing a problem (research topic), the scientist collects data. In addition, recognition and clear formulation of research objectives are accompanied by a mandatory search of published materials. In scientific research work, a distinction is made between scientific direction, problems and topics. 6 A scientific direction is a field of scientific research by large teams dedicated to fundamental solutions to theoretical and experimental problems in a particular branch of science. The structural units of the direction are complex problems, topics and questions. A problem is a complex scientific task that covers a significant area of ​​research and has long-term significance. The problem consists of a number of topics. A topic is a scientific problem covering a specific area of ​​scientific research. It is based on numerous research questions, which are understood as smaller scientific problems. When developing a topic or question, a specific research task is put forward - to develop a new material, design, technology, etc. Solving the problem poses a more general task: to make a discovery, to solve a set of scientific problems. 7 Selection (posing problems or topics) is a complex and responsible task and includes a number of stages: - formation of problems; - development of the structure of the problem (topics, subtopics and questions are identified); - establish the relevance of the problem, i.e. e. its value for science and technology. After substantiating the problem and establishing its structure, they begin to select a topic for scientific research and present a number of requirements: Scientific method. Definition and basic concepts 8 By scientific method we mean a number of such procedures that are used in the process of acquiring knowledge and are based on the following: . recognition and clear formulation of the problem; . collecting data through observation and, as far as possible, experiment; . formulating hypotheses through logical reasoning; . testing these hypotheses. Bacon wrote: “It is given to man either to unite things or to separate them.” The same is true for theoretical constructions. We can only divide the complex phenomena of Nature into elements and compare the elements that make up one phenomenon with the elements that make up another phenomenon. This path leads to the construction of very complex paintings, but the composite mosaic obtained as a result of countless questions (and answers like “yes” and “no”) creates the impression of a simple approximation to the original. How complex pictures can be created using countless combinations of yes-no answers can be demonstrated with the help of an electronic brain. The researcher’s task is to clearly understand what exactly needs to be compared, from what point of view, how to compare similar elements with each other, and how to organize the most rich information chain from simple answers. The scientific method is considered the foundation of scientific knowledge and the acquisition of new knowledge. Its starting point is the knowledge that all scientific theories must be supported by observational and/or experimental evidence. The scientific method requires accepting facts, even if they do not agree with our expectations, and also eliminating subjective arguments from evidence. Thus, among the basic values ​​that guide scientific activity, a special role is played by the position about the real existence of the objects under study, which, by virtue of such a statement, are objective (the principle of objectivity) and remain the same for all scientists. The world-famous Canadian physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate Hans Selye (1907-1982) believed that the main procedures used in the process of acquiring knowledge are based on: 1) defining and clearly formulating the problem; 2) formulating hypotheses through logical reasoning; 3) collecting data through observation and, as far as possible, experiment; 4) testing these hypotheses. To the four most important procedures named by Selye, one more, final procedure is usually added - 11 this is informing the scientific community about the results of research work. LECTURE 2 Questions: Methodology of scientific knowledge. Facts, their generalization and systematization. Scientific research and its methodology. Basic levels of scientific knowledge. Facts, their generalization and systematization The development of science proceeds from the collection of facts, their study, systematization, generalization and disclosure of individual patterns to a logically coherent system of scientific knowledge, which allows one to explain already known facts and predict new ones. The path of knowledge is from living contemplation to abstract thinking. The process of knowledge comes from collecting facts, but they in themselves are not science. Facts become part of scientific knowledge only in a systematized, generalized form. Facts are systematized using the simplest abstractions - concepts (definitions), which are the most important structural elements of science. The broadest concepts of a category (form and content, product and cost, etc.). An important form of knowledge is principles (postulates), axioms. A principle is understood as the initial position of any branch of science (axioms of Euclidean geometry, Bohr's postulate in quantum mechanics, etc.). The most important component in the system of scientific knowledge are scientific laws - reflecting the most significant, stable, repeating, objective, internal communications in nature, society and thinking. Laws appear in the form of a certain relationship of concepts and categories. The highest form of generalization and systematization is theory - the doctrine of generalized experience (practice), formulating scientific principles and methods that allow us to understand existing processes and phenomena, analyze the actions of various factors and offer recommendations for practical activities. Scientific research and its methodology Method is a method of theoretical research or practical implementation of any phenomenon or process. This is a solution tool main task science - the discovery of objective laws of reality. The method determines the need and place of application of induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, comparison of theoretical and experimental studies. Methodology is the study of the structure of logical organization, methods and means of activity (the study of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific research activities). The methodology of science characterizes the components of scientific research - its object, the subject of analysis, the research task (or problem), the totality of 14 research means necessary to solve the problem of this type , and also forms an idea of ​​the sequence of research movement in the process of solving the problem. Basic levels of scientific knowledge METHODS OF THEORETICAL RESEARCH LEVEL 15 Experiment is a system of operations, influences and observations aimed at obtaining information about an object Measurement is a procedure for determining the numerical value of the characteristics of the material objects under study (mass, speed, temperature, etc.) Observation - this is a purposeful and organized perception of the object of research, which allows one to obtain primary material for its study. The empirical level of research is associated with performing experiments, observations, and therefore the role of sensory forms of reflection of the world is great here. There are two levels of knowledge of truth: empirical and theoretical. The subject of empirical knowledge is the reality given to us in perception, which we can observe and which we can experiment with. This allows us to conclude that empirical knowledge provides information16, knowledge about the subject being studied in the form of observation, experience or experiment. Theoretical knowledge is addressed, as a rule, to abstract abstract thinking. It is associated with a deep analysis of facts, with insight into the essence of the phenomena being studied. Francis Bacon founded it in the 16th century. the role of experience as a source of true knowledge. In fact, Bacon developed the foundations of the doctrine of induction, which explores the problem of obtaining correct conclusions based on experimental data. Later, the French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596-1650) formulated the basic principles of deduction - an analytical method of thinking aimed at reducing complex ideas to simple ideas. Analysis of reasoning, as a logical form of theoretical knowledge, ultimately comes down to the development of methods and means of monitoring the logical correctness of evidential procedures in the process of intellectual communication and cognition. Logic in 17 scientific work, on the one hand, gives us the opportunity to analyze the correctness of thinking, on the other, it allows us to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect. LECTURE 3 18 Questions: Development of methods for theoretical and experimental research. Setting the goals and objectives of scientific research. Theoretical research methods. Research models. Experimental studies. Experiment planning. Scientific work must be relevant in scientific and applied meaning. The relevance in the scientific aspect is justified by the following: - the tasks of fundamental research require the development of this topic to explain new facts; - clarification of the development and resolution of the problem of scientific research is possible and urgently necessary in modern conditions; 19 - theoretical provisions of scientific research make it possible to remove existing disagreements in the understanding of a process or phenomenon; - hypotheses and patterns put forward in scientific work allow us to generalize previously known and obtained empirical data by the applicant. Relevance in the applied aspect, in particular, means: - the tasks of applied research require the development of questions on this topic; - there is an urgent need to solve scientific research problems for the needs of society, practice and production; - scientific work on this topic significantly improves the quality of developments by creative scientific teams in a certain field of knowledge; - new knowledge obtained as a result of scientific research helps to improve the qualifications of personnel or can be included in student training programs. In scientific research work, a distinction is made between scientific direction, problems and topics. A scientific direction is an area of ​​scientific research of a team dedicated to solving major fundamental theoretical and experimental problems in a certain branch of science. The structural units of the direction are complex problems, topics and questions. A problem is a complex scientific task that covers a significant area of ​​research and has long-term significance. The problem consists of a number of topics. A topic is a scientific problem covering a specific area of ​​scientific research. It is based on numerous research questions, which are understood as smaller scientific problems. When developing a topic or question, a specific research task is put forward - to develop a new material, design, technology, etc. 21 Solving a problem poses a more general task: to make a discovery, solve a set of scientific problems, etc. The choice (statement of problems or topics) is a complex and responsible task and includes a number of stages: - formation of problems; - development of the structure of the problem (topics, subtopics and questions are identified); - establish the relevance of the problem, i.e. its value for science and technology. After substantiating the problem and establishing its structure, they begin to select a topic for scientific research. There are a number of requirements for the topic: relevance; novelty; economic efficiency; significance. Scientific novelty is one of the main requirements for the topic of scientific work. Identification of elements of novelty is possible if the following points are present: 22. A thorough study of the literature on the subject of research with an analysis of its historical development. . Consideration of existing points of view. . Involving new digital and factual material into scientific circulation, for example, as a result of conducting an experiment, is already a noticeable claim of originality. . Detailing of a known process or phenomenon. A detailed analysis of almost any scientifically interesting object leads to new useful results, conclusions, and generalizations. The following elements of novelty can be identified that can be presented in a scientific work:  new essence of the problem, i.e. such a problem has been posed for the first time;  new formulation of known problems or tasks;  new method solutions; 23  new application of a known method or solution;  new results and consequences. LECTURE 4 Questions: Presentation of the results of scientific research. Scientific publication. General provisions. Structure scientific article. Requirements for compiling tables. Scientific illustration. Scientific publication. General provisions Scientific publication is the most important product of the creative activity of a scientist. Its main purpose is to inform the scientific community about new knowledge obtained as a result of the research. Nobel Prize winner, Canadian physiologist Hans Selye believed that “... as long as 24 pieces of evidence in favor of a scientific fact are insufficient, publication should be postponed.” He also pointed out two basic requirements for scientific works: they must communicate something new and be “readable.” The work of V.V. Bogatov was used. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) said: “The integrity of a scientist requires that weaknesses and errors are not hidden in his writing.” The author of a scientific work is required to: . Cover the scientific and technical information at his disposal with maximum completeness. . The publication should reflect materials that not only confirm, but also question the results obtained. . It is necessary to familiarize yourself with the scientific literature in the relevant field of knowledge as widely as possible, to identify the level of reliability of the available information. 25. Under no circumstances should you discard or hush up inconvenient scientific data that contradicts your own. . To be honest. As Hans Selye said: “A single mistake, a suspicious conclusion, an unfounded statement can discredit a scientist for many years.” Before starting work on the manuscript of the article, the author (researcher) must be sure that: - the materials received represent a completed study; - the methods used in the work and the results obtained correspond to the assigned tasks; - the conclusions drawn are logically linked to the factual material; - I was able to get acquainted with the printed works of my predecessors. To write good article the author (master's student, graduate student, scientist) requires possession of the following skills: 26 - thorough knowledge of the language in which the article is supposed to be written; - mastering the standards of text construction and scientific style of speech, ensuring unambiguous perception and evaluation of data; - understanding of the scientific method; - understanding of modern scientific concepts and terms; - knowledge of computer graphics; - ability to read and evaluate scientific articles of their colleagues; - ability to search for necessary scientific literature; - ability to search and evaluate the reliability of Internet sources. An important point in preparing a scientific publication, and then a master’s or graduate student’s dissertation, is the availability of primary materials on the basis of which any scientific publication is based. Primary data should be presented in the form of handwritten reports, which should be kept for possible verification of the findings by interested parties. It is also necessary to store all numerical data, laboratory notebooks, field diaries, collections and other documentary evidence of the work performed. Such materials should provide reconstruction of the most important stages of the study. It can also be noted that they should be accompanied by the necessary explanations and comments for use in subsequent research, especially in situations where new methods appear. Structure of a scientific article Before starting work on the manuscript, you need to familiarize yourself with the “Rules for Authors”, in which you will find specific requirements for the volume, content, heading and design of the manuscript (such requirements may vary markedly in different journals). The most common length of an article is 12-14 pages (including tables and 28 references) and 6-7 figures. The volume of short messages is 6 pages and 2-3 pictures. Title - The title of any publication should be short and clear. Typically, the length of the header is limited to 10-12 words. For initial orientation, it is useful to familiarize yourself with the construction of headings for articles in leading scientific journals corresponding to the profile of the research being conducted. The abstract (abstract) sets out in an extremely brief and clear form the content and main scientific novelty of the work. The volume of the abstract is usually 6-8 lines. It should be remembered that for many readers, familiarity with the article will be limited to familiarity with the summary. Therefore, it should be as informative as possible. Keywords include from 3 to 10 keywords or short phrases. The introduction formulates the purpose and justifies the need for the study. Sometimes the introductory part is written at the last stage, which allows its content to be more strictly correlated with the rest of the manuscript. Materials and methods are one of the most important sections of the article. This section describes in detail where and how the material was collected, analyzed and processed. Weather conditions, terrain, methods, equipment, and all procedures are described in sufficient detail to enable other researchers to reproduce the results obtained. References are provided to generally accepted methods, statistical analysis of data, and new or significantly modified methods are described. An important point is the justification of the chosen research methods. The results of the work are presented in the logical sequence of research; this section contains tables, figures, and graphs. The discussion of the results is a section that highlights new and important aspects of the data obtained, as well as the conclusions that follow from them. It is quite appropriate to compare your own data with other studies in this area; the conclusions drawn should correspond to the factual material, goals and title of the work. Acknowledgments This section performs an important part of the work, where the author of the work has the opportunity to thank the participants in the study. Persons not included in the list of co-authors usually include those who provided consultations, performed technical work, and expressed critical comments31. Thanks can be expressed to all of them in a special section of the manuscript. List of sources used in the text. When compiling this list, it is necessary to refer to the most important publications in the field under study, and the most significant ones are selected from the more cited journals. Try to avoid references to abstracts and abstracts of articles. When confirming the most common problems and achievements, it is recommended to refer to publications where this problem presented in the most detail. Such publications include monographs and review articles. It is possible to refer to articles accepted for publication but not yet published. In this case, you should indicate “in press”, and you must obtain confirmation that this material has actually been accepted for publication. It happens that authors often refer to their own works, in which the issue under discussion has already been touched upon32. It is believed that excessive reliance on such references by the scientific community is considered an “anomaly” in citation. The list of references is compiled according to the rules adopted in the selected scientific periodical. In Russia, the bibliographic description of publications is regulated by GOST 7.1-2003. Requirements for compiling tables. A table is a list of systematized digital data or any other information arranged in a certain order according to columns (Rakhmalin, 1973). It is one of the most effective means of preparing scientific information for subsequent comparison and evaluation. The table consists of four main elements: a) numbered title (table number); b) thematic heading; c) the header part of the table (head), located in its upper part; 33 d) the main part, consisting of a “side panel” (on the left) and a “prografka”, which are divided into parts both vertically and horizontal lines in accordance with the total number of indicators. When compiling a table, we are guided by the following requirements: 1. The table should not only be visual, but also as compact as possible. Do not present tables as photographs. 2. Try not to create too many tables compared to the amount of text. Limit yourself to those tables (and other visual materials) that are necessary to confirm the main arguments of the article and assess the degree of their validity. 3. Number the tables sequentially, in the order of their first mention in the text. 4. The heading of each column (column) should be located directly above it. 34 5. All columns and sidebars of the table must have headings. It is not recommended to use a slash above the sidebar title. A separate group of columns. 6. If you use data from another published source in a table or output, you must link to that source. Scientific illustration The main types of illustrative material include graphs/diagrams, drawings, diagrams and photographs. Graphs usually compare in one form or another any numerical values ​​or relationships between them. In the drawings, the authors depict the objects of research, highlighting the main parts of the depicted object. At the same time, a drawing often allows you to more clearly depict an object compared to a photograph. In diagrams, images are conveyed using symbols. For example, diagrams of various processes and systems can be depicted in the form of rectangles or other shapes, indicating the connections between them. Such diagrams are also called block diagrams. Electronic versions of graphic material (scanned and computer-drawn illustrations) are usually accepted in TIFF format , but JPEG and GIF can be used. For scanned line drawings, it is recommended to meet the requirement of 600 dpi, and for photographs - at least 200. LECTURE 5 Questions: Methodology for preparing a dissertation. Structure of the dissertation work. Basic job requirements. Design rules. Abstract. Dissertation (from Latin dissertation - reasoning, research) is a scientific research work of a qualifying nature, prepared36 for public defense and obtaining an academic degree. Structure of the dissertation: The structure of the scientific work, which is the dissertation, should provide the opportunity to show how the research goals are achieved. The dissertation work has three parts: - introductory (introduction) - main (material and method, research results) - final (conclusion, proposals for production). Each of them has its own purpose, structure and content. The introduction to the dissertation includes the relevance of the chosen topic, the degree of its development, goals and objectives, scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance of the work, methodology and methods of dissertation research, provisions submitted for defense, degree of reliability and testing of the results. In the main part, the text of the dissertation is divided into chapters and paragraphs or sections and subsections, which are numbered in Arabic numerals. At the conclusion of the dissertation, the results of the research performed, recommendations, and prospects for further development of the topic are presented." Relevance of the dissertation research This paragraph substantiates the relevance of the dissertation topic for science and practice. The relevance of the dissertation topic is determined by the need for its scientific (academic) and practical (applied) study. Relevance dissertation research is argued by the need, social demand in the study of a specific scientific problem. These “postulates" can be supplemented with the following template phrases: - The research is aimed at ... identifying and analyzing the main factors ... is of particular interest for ... can contribute to ... 38 - Studying the role ... is of great importance for a correct understanding of the features... Goals and objectives of the research - when choosing the purpose of the research, it is necessary to indicate the scientific concept of the entire dissertation work, note the scientific result to which the work is aimed. purpose of the study. When writing a dissertation, the author should adhere to the specified goal, which ultimately contributes to writing a coherent and consistent dissertation research. The main provisions submitted for defense: in this section the applicant must not only indicate the main provisions of his work submitted for defense, but also confirm the reliability of his theoretical and practical provisions, for example: The following provisions are submitted for defense:... 39 The most significant scientific results may be new theoretical provisions formulated by the author, new ideas, new specific techniques, models, methods, scheme, justifications, concepts, patterns. Theoretical and practical significance of the research - in this section it is necessary to substantiate the theoretical and practical significance of the dissertation research carried out, indicate what the specific theoretical significance of this scientific research is, note the theoretical aspects of the dissertation and in what areas of science or national economy the results of the dissertation can be put into practice work. The dissertation author must determine the practical significance of the research carried out, provide recommendations for the use of the results obtained in scientific, educational and methodological works, and, accordingly, in scientific and pedagogical activities. 40 Approbation of research results - This section indicates the most significant seminars, symposiums, conferences, research and development (R&D) and other scientific and methodological events where the applicant’s dissertation was presented, as well as its main results and provisions. Publications of research results - This section indicates the main publications based on the results of the work. Structure and volume of the dissertation - the structure of the dissertation must correspond to the main objectives of the analysis of the chosen research topic: The dissertation consists of Introduction, ... chapters (... paragraphs), Conclusion, Bibliography and appendices. The total volume of the dissertation is ... pages. EXAMPLE. The dissertation consists of an introduction, a literature review, a description of materials and research methods, results and their discussion, conclusions, 41 recommendations for breeding practice and a list of references. The work is presented on 137 pages of typewritten text, including 17 tables and 31 drawings. The list of used literature includes 171 sources, including 51 by foreign authors. Section “Literature Review”. Throughout the work you will have to use a bank of previous knowledge and refer to them. Only in this case will the reliability of the results obtained be sufficiently high and there will be fewer people willing to question them. When reviewing the literature, you should show how similar research problems were solved, what was done to solve them, and what needs to be done in your case. Thus, the “History of the Issue” considered in the work will be logical. Section “Materials and Methods” The general requirement for this section is as follows: Anyone who has read it must be able to reproduce all the manipulations that have been described. 42 It is advisable to indicate the brand of the device or machine on which the work was carried out, the manufacturer of the reagents, sample sizes, characteristics of varieties and hybrids with reference to the source, authors of the methods and year of publication. Section - Research results. When describing the results of an experiment, the obtained patterns should be shown. In this case, it is not enough to refer only to the figure where these patterns are shown, but it is necessary to analyze them, explain why this particular pattern was obtained and not another. There is also another extreme when, instead of referring to a figure or table, they try to completely duplicate it in words, repeating in the text all the numerical values ​​of the function that are visible from the tables or graphs. Section - Conclusion. Objectives, results and conclusions must correspond to each other in essence! Main rules of compliance: 43 The title of the work must correspond to its content. Job objectives must be consistent with the purpose of the job. The results must correspond to the assigned tasks. Conclusions must correspond to the results obtained (and must be the result of their comprehension). List of references The number of literary sources in the candidate's dissertation must be at least 200. Domestic authors are mentioned first, foreign sources second. The list of references is compiled in alphabetical order, first in the Russian alphabet, then in the Latin alphabet. 44 If an article has up to 4 authors, then all of them are indicated. If there are more than four authors, then the first three are indicated, followed by “etc.” When specifying several articles by one author, they must be arranged in alphabetical order of co-authors or titles. In the text, when referring to several works at once, they are indicated in alphabetical order by the author's last name. Section “Appendix” In this section you can place tables of contents, data on weather conditions at the time of the experiments, results statistical processing data that is not included in the main text of the work, copies of patents, copyright certificates and databases. All applications must be referenced in the text of the dissertation. The appendices are arranged in the order of references to them in the text of the dissertation; each appendix should start on a new page with the word “Appendix” indicated at the top of the page. Abstract.Author's abstract is a brief, succinct presentation of the main content of the dissertation research, its scientific novelty and practical significance. The abstract should reflect the content of the dissertation as fully as possible. The main purpose of the abstract is to serve as a way to inform about the scientific results obtained. The abstract cannot contain information that is not included in the dissertation; this is considered a gross violation. 46

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Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-14.jpg" alt=">What is science?">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-15.jpg" alt="> In a broad sense, SCIENCE: Research activities; Institutions"> В широком смысле НАУКА: Научно-исследовательская деятельность; Учреждения (НИИ) и университеты; Материальная база (лаборатории и экспериментальное оборудование); Система научной информации; Научные знания (и обыденное); Методы научной деятельности и пр.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-16.jpg" alt="> Science is a sphere of human activity aimed at collecting, developing, analyzing"> Наука – сфера человеческой деятельности, направленная на сбор, выработку, анализ и систематизацию (синтез) объективных знаний об окружающем мире!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-17.jpg" alt="> Environmental management - the use of the natural environment to meet environmental,"> Природопользование - использование природной среды для удовлетворения экологических, экономических и культурно-оздоровительных потребностей общества. Природопользование - наука о рациональном использовании природных ресурсов обществом (комплекс естественных, общественных и технических наук).!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-18.jpg" alt="> Rational use of natural resources - full satisfaction of the needs of society while preserving the environmental"> Рациональное природопользование - полное удовлетворение потребностей общества при сохранении экологического баланса и возможностей восстановления природно-ресурсного потенциала. Задачи науки природопользования – поиск и внедрение инновационной хозяйственной деятельности и технологий («устойчивое развитие»). Нерациональное природопользование - экологическая деградация и катастрофы.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-19.jpg" alt="> Object of environmental management - land, water, natural resources."> Объект природопользования - земля, вода, природные ресурсы. Предмет природопользования - изучение, анализ роли и места природного фактора в экономике.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-20.jpg" alt=">From the history of science">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-21.jpg" alt="> Periodization of science Stage 1. Ancient world. Antiquity (VI -V )."> Периодизация науки Этап 1. Древний мир. Античность (VI -V). Этап 2. Наука эпохи Возрождения. Зарождение классической науки (ХIV -ХVI). Этап 3. Эпоха нового времени. Классический период (ХVI-ХVII). Этап 4. Неклассическая наука (ХVIII – ХIХ). Этап 5. Постнеклассическая наука (ХХ-ХХI).!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-22.jpg" alt="> System and classification of sciences Natural sciences Social and humanitarian"> Система и классификация наук Естественные науки Социально-гуманитарные науки Технические и точные науки!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-23.jpg" alt="> Dialectics of science development Differentiation of science (identification of new scientific disciplines) –"> Диалектика развития науки Дифференциация науки (выделение новых научных дисциплин) – разделение научного труда. Интеграция науки (синтез знания) – стирание граней между научными дисциплинами.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-24.jpg" alt="> Organization of science in Russia Russian Academy of Sciences Republican branches of research institutes,"> Организация науки в России Российская Академия Наук Республиканские отделения НИИ, краевые, областные, города федерального значения) Региональные научные центры Министерства и ведомства Лаборатории Конструкторские Бюро Учреждения ВПО Университеты. Факультеты. Кафедры.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-25.jpg" alt=">Russian Academy of Education Leninsky Prospekt, 32 "A"">!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-26.jpg" alt="> Russian science today (2014 -2015) Russian system Arctic monitoring. "> Russian science today (2014 -2015) Russian Arctic monitoring system. Equipping aircraft and ships in Russia with GLONASS modules. Launch of Angara and the Sputnik search service. Development of robotics. Bringing ROSTEC to the international market of competitive products. Russian AI program (artificial intelligence) was the first in the world to pass the Turing test.

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-27.jpg" alt="> Science and achievements of MGIMO MGIMO is the founder of the Academy political science"> Science and achievements of MGIMO MGIMO is the founder of the Academy of Political Science. 1999 - the creation of RAMI (Rector A.V. Torkunov, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences) MGIMO is the leader in the number of graduates (UN, UNESCO, etc.). 500 Ambassadors Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Russia, 20 full members and corresponding members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Leader in training political figures on a par with Yale and Harvard universities

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-28.jpg" alt="> Training of scientific personnel in Russia Postgraduate studies (school."> Подготовка научных кадров в России Аспирантура (уч. степень – кандидат наук) Докторантура (уч. степень – доктор наук) Преподаватели-исследователи (доцент, профессор) ВАК РФ и его функции (экспертиза…) РАН и его звания (м. н. с. , с. н. с. , ведущий специалист, главный специалист, член-корр. , академик)!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-29.jpg" alt="> Functions of science Cultural and ideological (creation of a research environment); Function of production"> Функции науки Культурно-мировоззренческая (создание исследовательской среды); Функция производственной и социальной силы; Познавательная; Регулятивная (синтез воспитания, образования, исследовательской деятельности); Воспитательная (целеустремленность); Прогностическая (предвидение); Аксеологическая (ценостная); Управленческая (НОТ) и др.!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-30.jpg" alt=">Nomenclature of scientific specialties 01. 00 Physical and mathematical sciences 02. 00 Chemical Sciences 03. 00 Biological"> Номенклатура научных специальностей 01. 00 Физико-математические науки 02. 00 Химические науки 03. 00 Биологические науки 04. 00 Геолого-минералогические науки 05. 00 !} Technical science 06.00 Agricultural sciences 07.00 Historical sciences 08.00 Economic sciences 09.00 Philosophical sciences 10.00 Philological sciences

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-31.jpg" alt="> Nomenclature of scientific economic specialties 08. 00. 01"> Номенклатура научных экономических специальностей 08. 00. 01 Экономическая теория 08. 00. 05 Экономика и управление народным хозяйством 08. 00. 10 Финансы, денежное обращение и кредит 08. 00. 12 Бухгалтерский учет, статистика 08. 00. 13 Математические методы экономики 08. 00. 14 Мировая экономика!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-32.jpg" alt="> Scientific research activities in the Law of the Russian Federation NID are activities"> Научно-исследовательская деятельность в Законе РФ НИД – это деятельность, направленная на получение и применение новых знаний, включая фундаментальные и прикладные научные исследования. Федеральный закон «О науке и государственной научно- технической политике» от 12 июля 1996 года!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-33.jpg" alt="> Scientific research activities of students (NIRS) NIRS at MGIMO are provided with the Regulations : Regulations on the organization"> Научно-исследовательская деятельность студентов (НИРС) НИРС в МГИМО обеспечена Положениями: Положение об организации НИРС Положение о Совете молодых ученых Типовое положение о студенческом исследовательском бюро!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-34.jpg" alt="> Types of student research activities selection and analysis of scientific literature;"> Виды научно-исследовательской деятельности студентов отбор и анализ научной литературы; подготовка научных рефератов, аналитических справок, экспертиз; подготовка научных докладов и статей; подготовка курсовых работ; подготовка квалификационных и дипломных работ;!}

Src="https://present5.com/presentation/3/48546724_424770964.pdf-img/48546724_424770964.pdf-35.jpg" alt=">THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION!">!}

Vladimir Shveitser

A changing Europe, despite all the similarities in the problems it faces, is not a homogeneous organism devoid of any country specificity. Here, as before, there are leading states, and there are “second-line” countries that have a certain impact on the course of European and world events. There are also those who, for various reasons, cannot yet have their say in solving the economic, political and social problems of our time.

In this situation, which is natural for the period of transition from the old two-speed Europe to a Europe seeking to create a single market space and democratic power structures, the territorial size of states and the population size of each of them are becoming less and less important. A much more significant factor is the degree of integration of the corresponding country into the pan-European economic, political and social space, the ability to find a “national niche” in the increasingly complex system of international relations.

The concepts of “large” and “small” European countries differ; states of the European continent refer exclusively to the categories of their differentiation according to the size of the territory they occupy and the number of people living on it. True, here the question immediately arises: are there clear generally accepted criteria, clear digital indicators by which one can determine which state is “large” and which is “small”?...

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• Table of contents

• Introduction
• Chapter 1. The place of creativity and intuition in research processes
• Chapter 2. Science and scientific research
• 2.1 Science
• 2.2 Scientific research
• Chapter 3. Formulating the topic and stages of scientific research
• Chapter 4. Goals and objectives of scientific research work
• Conclusion

Introduction

We live in an era of radical transformations that are changing the social picture of the world and the driving forces for the development of social production. Science plays a significant role in these processes. Over the past century, its importance in the life of society has increased immeasurably. It has become a direct productive force of society, an important element of socio-economic and technical progress, and an essential means of social management.

From the very beginning of the formation of science, the attention of scientists was attracted by the problems of the emergence of new knowledge, scientific research and creativity. I would like to note that they are becoming especially relevant at the moment, since hundreds of thousands of people are involved in the field of scientific research, and the results of this research become a direct productive force. Repeated attempts to create artificial intelligence- another reason for the particular relevance of these problems. The difficulty is that a machine cannot be taught to “think” like a person, since the programs embedded inside allow it to act only according to strict logical rules and algorithms. While human thinking is characterized by such features as imagination, intuition, the ability to anticipate the result of an activity, which so far no one has been able to algorithmize and drive into a strict logical framework. That's why main role Man still plays a role in obtaining new knowledge, and smart machines are only his assistants, without which no scientific research is now conceivable.

Any scientific research is carried out in order to overcome difficulties in the process of understanding new phenomena and to explain previously unknown facts. One of the most important conditions ensuring the acceleration of scientific research is the further development of the theory and methodology of scientific knowledge and research, which is explained, on the one hand, by the needs of modern scientific, technical and social progress of society, and on the other hand, by the complication of the very process of scientific knowledge and research and , in addition, further differentiation and integration of scientific knowledge. science creativity intuition research

From proving the relevance of the chosen topic, it is logical to move on to formulating the purpose of the research being undertaken, as well as pointing out specific tasks to be solved.

The object of study of this work is not the scientific discovery itself, as something already accomplished and static, but the process as a result of which this discovery was accomplished.

The purpose of the work is aimed, first of all, at identifying the features of the scientific research process, at analyzing those components without which obtaining new scientific truths is not possible.

To achieve the goal of the work, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

1. Show the role of creativity and intuition in the processes of scientific research.

2. Define the concept of “science” and characterize its main features.

3. Consider the formulation process and the sequence of stages of scientific research.

4. Reveal the essence of scientific research, its classification and goals.

Chapter 1. The place of creativity and intuition in scientific research processes

Creativity is the process of creating new values, discoveries, establishing facts unknown to science, inventions, creating new, valuable information. Research must be creative.

Determine the essence of the process under study, scientifically summarize a large amount of experimental data, that is, refute existing or create new scientific hypotheses, give a deep explanation of processes or phenomena that were previously incomprehensible or poorly understood, connect together various phenomena- all this is impossible without creative thinking.

The creative process requires the improvement of a certain way of thinking, since improvement is the process of modifying the object of thought in the optimal direction. If this process reaches the boundaries defined by the previously set goal, the optimization process stops, and a product of mental labor is created. In the theoretical aspect, this is a scientific rethinking.

Under certain conditions, the improvement process leads to the emergence of an original theoretical solution. Originality is found in a unique, unique point of view on a process or phenomenon.

The creative nature of thinking when developing theoretical aspects of scientific research consists in creating imagination, i.e. new combinations of known elements, and is based on the following techniques: collection and synthesis of information, constant comparison, comparison, critical reflection, expressive formulation of one’s own thoughts, their written presentation, improvement and optimization of research provisions.

There are several stages of the creative process of theoretical research: familiarization with known solutions, rejection of known ways to solve similar problems, analysis of various solution options, decision, that is, selection of the optimal option.

A creative solution often does not fit into pre-planned plans. Sometimes original solutions appear unexpectedly, after lengthy and futile attempts. The more known solutions, the more difficult it is to obtain an original solution. The creative process is a break from conventional ideas and a look at phenomena from a non-standard point of view.

Own creative thoughts and original solutions arise the more often, the more effort, labor and time the researcher spends on constant understanding of the object of research.

The peculiarity of creative work in research lies in its goal function - the transformation of science into a direct productive force.

The main driving force in the development of science is the thinking of brilliant scientists, authors of epoch-making discoveries that changed the worldview and cultural image of civilization. A creative search, the final outcome of which is the possibility of making a scientific discovery, is the basis of the strategy of any scientific research. Elements of creativity are already necessary when solving any non-standard problems, that is, such problems for which the algorithm is either unknown in general or unknown to a given specific subject of cognition. The creative process is dynamic and includes emotions, experiences and imagination.

In scientific work there is always at least a small element of scientific creativity, but scientific creativity can also come to the fore in scientific work.

Also, the driving force of any scientific research is intuition. Intuition is the ability to directly comprehend a possible result of an activity, the way to achieve it, without preliminary logical-heuristic reasoning. It is associated both with accumulated experience and knowledge, and with innate inclinations, which together determine the ability of the human brain to make “leaps” in the process of cognition.

Analytical thinking is characterized by the fact that its individual stages are clearly presented, objectified for the thinking person, and he can express them in speech. In this case, a person is usually aware of both the content and the train of thoughts. In this case, thinking can take the form of harmonious reasoning from the general to the particular or the form of sequential analysis from the particular to the general. There are no clearly defined steps in intuitive thinking. Its main tendency is a collapsed perception of the entire problem at once. A person arrives at an answer without being aware of the process by which that answer was arrived at. Moreover, even the material of the problem is reflected unconsciously in this case. The process of thinking itself is carried out in the form of leaps, quick transitions, with the skipping of individual links.

Intuitive activity is one of the manifestations of heuristic activity, the results of which appear before they are justified by means of logical inference. It is an unconscious form of mental activity that uses temporarily unconscious and thereby excluded from active work consciousness information. Behind the ability to “suddenly” guess the result or the method of obtaining it is actually accumulated experience and previously acquired knowledge.

Objectively existing processes of information processing, which are called thinking, can occur at certain intervals in such a way that a person is not aware of them, is not aware of them. At the same time, they proceed according to the same laws as conscious thinking. Very complex mental problems can be solved in the subconscious. At the same time, the process of processing information itself is not realized by a person, but only its result appears in consciousness, therefore all attention is focused on it. In this case, it seems to the person that an “insight was sent down” on him, that a successful hypothesis came at lightning speed and from nowhere. This is the moment of “leap”, or “insight”, which does not always present a brilliant idea. This may be a modest guess. Outwardly, “insight” looks like a logical break, a leap in thinking, obtaining a result that does not clearly follow from the premises. For highly gifted people, this leap can be enormous.

Thus, in various sciences, intuition solves problems that arise during scientific research, even if there is no strict justification.

Chapter 2. Science and scientific research

2.1 Science

Science is a continuously developing system of knowledge of the objective laws of nature, society and thinking, obtained and transformed into the direct productive force of society as a result of the special activities of people.

Science is not only a body of accumulated knowledge, but also an activity to obtain new, previously non-existent knowledge.

Science can be viewed in different dimensions:

1) as a specific form of social consciousness, the basis of which is a system of knowledge;

2) as a process of cognition of the laws of the objective world;

3) as a certain type of social division of labor;

4) as one of the important factors of social development and as a process of knowledge production and its use.

Not all knowledge can be considered scientific. It is impossible to recognize as scientific the knowledge that a person receives only on the basis of simple observation. This knowledge plays an important role in people’s lives, but it does not reveal the essence of phenomena, the relationship between them, which would make it possible to explain why a given phenomenon occurs in one way or another, and to predict its further development.

The main feature and main function of science is knowledge of the objective world. Science was created to directly identify the essential aspects of all phenomena of nature, society and thinking.

The correctness of scientific knowledge is determined not only by logic, but, above all, by mandatory testing of it in practice. Scientific knowledge is fundamentally different from blind faith, from the unquestioning recognition of one or another position as true, without any logical justification or practical verification. Revealing the natural connections of reality, science expresses them in abstract concepts and diagrams that strictly correspond to this reality.

The goal of science is to understand the laws of development of nature and society and to influence nature through the use of knowledge to obtain results useful to society. Until the corresponding laws are discovered, a person can only describe phenomena, collect, systematize facts, but he cannot explain or predict anything.

The development of science proceeds from the collection of factors, their study and systematization, generalization and disclosure of individual patterns to a connected, logically harmonious system of scientific knowledge, which allows us to explain already known facts and predict new ones. The path of knowledge is determined from living contemplation to abstract thinking and from the latter to practice.

The process of cognition involves the accumulation of facts. No science can exist without a logical understanding of facts, systematization and generalization. Facts become an integral part of scientific knowledge when they appear in a systematized, generalized form. Facts are systematized and generalized using the simplest abstractions - definitions, which are important structural elements of science. The broadest concepts are called categories. These are the most general abstractions.

The most important component in the system of scientific knowledge are scientific laws, which reflect the most significant, stable, repeating objective internal connections in nature, society and thinking. Usually laws appear in the form of a certain relationship of concepts and categories.

Theory is the highest form of generalization and systematization of knowledge. Any scientific theory, explaining the nature of certain processes of reality, is always associated with a certain particular method of research. Based on general and specific research methods, the scientist receives an answer to where to start research, how to relate to facts, how to generalize, and which way to reach conclusions.

A characteristic feature of modern science is that it is turning into a complex and continuously growing social organism, into the most dynamic, mobile, productive force of society, which is manifested in profound changes in the relationship between science and production.

Science is social in its origin, development and use. Every scientific discovery is a universal labor, in every this moment time, science acts as a summary expression of human success in understanding the world. Therefore, it can be truly effectively used only with the emergence of the social nature of the productive forces, with the development of social labor and production on a large scale.

There are three groups of main opportunities to increase the efficiency of science and scientific and technological progress.

The capabilities of the first group are in the sphere of direct creative activity of researchers and consist of increasing the methodological level of scientific work, putting forward new, deeper ideas, and mastering promising research methods.

The capabilities of the second group in the field of managing the scientific process consist in creating the most favorable conditions for the fruitful work of all categories of scientific workers and across the entire spectrum of the modern scientific process.

The possibilities of the third lie in improving the social, primarily economic, mechanism that facilitates the rapid assimilation of scientific results by production and social practice in general.

2.2 Scientific research

Science is the main factor in ensuring the competitiveness of products and the prestige of the country in the world market. Therefore, the leading countries of the world pay significant attention to research activities, spending significant funds on this.

The form of implementation and development of science is scientific research, that is, the study of phenomena and processes using scientific methods, analysis of the influence of various factors on them, as well as the study of the interaction between phenomena in order to obtain convincingly proven solutions that are useful for science and practice with maximum effect.

Any scientific research has its own object and subject. Its object is a material or ideal system, and its subject is the structure of the system, the interaction of its elements, various properties and patterns of development.

Each scientific research - from the creative concept to the final design of the completed scientific work - is carried out individually, but this does not prevent us from highlighting and defining general methodological approaches to its implementation.

To study in the scientific sense means to conduct exploratory research, as if looking into the future. Imagination, fantasy and dreams, based on real achievements of science and technology, are the most important factors in scientific research. It also means being scientifically objective. Facts cannot be thrown aside just because they are difficult to explain or find. practical use: the essence of what is new in science is not always visible to the researcher himself. New scientific facts, and even discoveries, due to the fact that their significance is poorly disclosed, can remain in the reserve of science for a long time and not be used in practice. The development of an idea to the stage of solving a problem usually occurs as a planned process of scientific research. Science is also aware of accidental discoveries, but only planned scientific research, well equipped with modern means, can reliably reveal and deeply understand objective patterns in nature. In the future, the process of targeted and general ideological processing of the initial plan continues, clarifications, changes, additions are made, and the planned research scheme is developed.

When characterizing scientific research, they usually point to its following distinctive features:

1) this is necessarily a goal-oriented process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;

2) this is a process aimed at searching for something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, at new coverage of the issues under consideration.

Scientific research is characterized by systematicity. Here the research process itself and its results are ordered and brought into system; it is characterized by strict evidence and consistent justification of the generalizations and conclusions made.

The basis for the development of each scientific research is methodology, that is, a set of methods, methods, techniques and their specific sequence adopted in the development of scientific research. Ultimately, methodology is a scheme, a plan for solving a given research problem. Scientific research should be considered in continuous development, based on linking theory with practice.

2.3 Classification of scientific research

An important role in scientific research is played by cognitive tasks that arise when solving scientific problems, the greatest interest of which is empirical and theoretical.

Empirical methods of cognition play a large role in scientific research. They not only form the basis for reinforcing theoretical premises, but often form the subject of a new discovery or scientific research.

Empirical tasks are aimed at identifying, accurately describing and thoroughly studying the various factors of the phenomena and processes under consideration. In scientific research, they are solved using various methods of cognition - observation and experiment.

Observation is a method of cognition in which an object is studied without interfering with it; They record and measure only the properties of the object and the nature of its change.

An experiment is the most general empirical method of cognition, in which not only observations and measurements are made, but also rearrangements and changes in the object of study are carried out.

Theoretical tasks are aimed at studying and identifying causes, connections, dependencies that make it possible to establish the behavior of an object, determine and study its structure, characteristics based on the principles and methods of cognition developed in science. As a result of the knowledge gained, laws are formulated, theories are developed, and facts are verified. Here the objects under study are mentally analyzed, generalized, their essence, internal connections, and laws of development are comprehended. Theoretical cognitive tasks are formulated in such a way that they can be tested empirically. In solving empirical and purely theoretical problems of scientific research, an important role belongs to the logical method of cognition, which allows, on the basis of inferential interpretations, to explain phenomena and processes, put forward various proposals and ideas, and establish ways to solve them. This method is based on the results of empirical research.

The interaction between the theoretical and empirical levels of research is that:

1) The totality of facts constitutes the practical basis of the theory;

2) Facts can confirm or refute a theory;

3) A scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas;

4) Empirical research in modern science is predetermined and guided by theory.

One of the most important requirements for scientific research is scientific generalization, which will allow one to establish the dependence and connection between the phenomena and processes being studied and draw scientific conclusions. The deeper the conclusions, the higher the scientific level of the research.

According to the target, there are three types of scientific research: fundamental, applied and exploratory.

Fundamental scientific research is an experimental theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of man, society, and the natural environment. Their goal is to expand the scientific knowledge of society and establish what can be used in practical human activities. Such research is conducted on the border between the known and the unknown and has the greatest degree of uncertainty. Fundamental work does not always end in achieving a positive result. If the result is positive, that is, the discovery of a new theory, fundamental research can be the basis for conducting exploratory and applied research work.

Exploratory research is created on the basis of existing theoretical research and is aimed at establishing the factors influencing the object, identifying possible ways to create new technologies and equipment based on the methods proposed as a result of fundamental research.

As a result of fundamental and exploratory research, new scientific and scientific-technical information is generated. The purposeful process of converting such information into a form suitable for development in sectors of the national economy is usually called development. It is aimed at creating new equipment, materials, technologies or improving existing ones. The ultimate goal of development is to prepare materials for applied research.

Applied scientific research is research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems. In other words, they are aimed at solving the problems of using scientific knowledge obtained as a result of fundamental research in the practical activities of people.

Development is called scientific research that is aimed at implementing the results of specific fundamental and applied research into practice.

Every scientific study has a topic. The topic can be various issues of science and technology. Justification of the topic is an important stage in the development of scientific research.

Scientific research is classified according to various criteria: by type of connection with social production, by the degree of importance for the national economy, depending on sources of funding and by the duration of development.

1) By type of connection with social production - scientific research aimed at creating new processes, machines, structures and fully used to improve production efficiency; theoretical work in the field of social, humanities and other sciences, which are used to improve social relations, increase the level of spiritual life of people and other areas, as well as scientific research aimed at improving industrial relations, increasing the level of organization of production without creating new means of labor;

2) In terms of importance for the national economy - work carried out on the instructions of ministries and departments and also research carried out according to the plan (at the initiative) of research organizations;

3) Depending on the sources of funding - state budget, financed from the state budget;

Commercial contracts, financed in accordance with concluded agreements between customer organizations that use scientific research in a given industry, and organizations that carry out research;

4) According to the duration of development - long-term, developed over several years, and short-term, usually completed in one year.

Chapter 3. Formulating the topic and stages of scientific research

For scientific research to be successful, it must be properly organized, planned and carried out in a certain sequence. These plans and sequence of actions depend on the type, object and goals of scientific research. In scientific research developments there are distinguished: scientific directions, problems and topics.

A scientific direction is understood as the scope of scientific research of a scientific team dedicated to solving any major, fundamental theoretical and experimental problems in a certain branch of science. The structural units of the direction are complex problems, topics and questions. A complex problem includes several problems.

The problem is not only the starting point of the study, which can be forgotten after the activity has already begun; on the contrary, the existence of a problem alone makes the research meaningful. Stopping research on a problem means stopping research. From this point of view, all science and scientific activity in general is devoted to solving problems, original or more or less standard. A problem is understood as a complex scientific problem that covers a significant area of ​​research and has promising significance. The usefulness of such tasks and their economic effect can sometimes be determined only approximately. Problem solving poses a general task - to make a discovery and solve a set of problems.

The problem consists of a number of topics. A topic is a scientific problem covering a specific area of ​​scientific research. It is based on numerous research questions. Scientific questions refer to smaller scientific problems related to a specific field of scientific research. The results of solving these problems have not only theoretical, but mainly also practical significance, since the expected economic effect can be relatively accurately determined.

When developing a topic or question, a specific research task is put forward - to develop a new design, progressive technology, a new technique. The choice of topics is preceded by a thorough familiarization with domestic and foreign sources of this and related specialties. Selecting (posing) problems or topics is a difficult, responsible task and includes a number of stages.

The first stage is the formulation of problems. Based on the analysis of the contradictions of the direction under study, the main question - the problem - is formulated, and the expected result is determined in general terms.

The second stage involves developing the problem structure. Topics, subtopics, questions are identified. The composition of these components should form a problem tree. For each topic, an indicative area of ​​research is identified.

At the third stage, the relevance of the problem is established, that is, its value in at this stage for science and technology. To do this, several objections are raised for each topic and, based on analysis, using the method of research approximation, objections in favor of the reality of this topic are excluded. After such an analysis, the structure of the problem is finally drawn up and the topics, subtopics, and questions are designated by a conditional code.

Choosing a topic is often more difficult than conducting the research itself. The topic has a number of requirements. The topic must be relevant, that is, important, requiring resolution at the present time. This requirement is one of the main ones. There is no criterion yet for establishing the degree of relevance. Thus, when comparing two topics of theoretical research, the degree of relevance can be assessed by a prominent scientist in a given field or a research team. When assessing the relevance of applied scientific developments, errors do not arise if the topic that will provide a large economic effect turns out to be more relevant. The topic must be cost effective and must be meaningful. Any topic of applied research should have an economic effect in the national economy. This is one of the most important requirements. At the stage of choosing a research topic, the expected economic effect can be determined, as a rule, approximately. Sometimes the economic effect cannot be determined at all at the initial stage. In such cases, for a rough assessment of effectiveness, you can use topics that are similar in name and development.

An important characteristic of a topic is its feasibility or implementability. When developing a topic, you should evaluate the possibility of completing it on schedule and implementing it in the customer’s production environment. If this cannot be done at all or done within a time frame that does not suit the customer, then they deliberately plan to develop ineffective themes.

After familiarizing yourself with the topic, the researcher justifies the formulation of the question and its state at the time of receiving the topic in front of his colleagues.

Chapter 4. Goals and objectives of scientific research work

After choosing a topic for scientific research, a search begins, and then a specific and thorough study of scientific and technical information. The search process in science is a very complex and complex problem.

The goals and objectives of the study form interconnected chains in which each link serves as a means of holding other links

The purpose of scientific research is to identify a specific object and a comprehensive, reliable study of its structure, characteristics, connections based on the principles and methods of cognition developed in science, as well as obtaining results useful for human activity, implementation in production with further effect. It is aimed at solving the formulated problem underlying the subject of research, located within the object of the same research, which orients the research itself towards obtaining new results. In accordance with the classics of the systems approach, the criteria for evaluating goal formulations can be efficiency, feasibility (practicality), flexibility, and measurability (specificity).

Various literary sources are studied in the original and translated editions. Analysis of sources will eliminate duplication of the topic under study. It is not recommended to rely on literary analysis of foreign information without personal familiarization with the original or qualified translations of other authors. In addition to information directly related to the topic under study, it is necessary to study the basic literature on related topics. It is also important to familiarize yourself with disciplines close to the discipline of the chosen topic. This analysis can be useful in developing individual questions of the topic. After collecting literary, archival, production and other information data and summarizing them, it is useful to find out the opinion of leading experts. They can provide significant assistance in identifying the main problems, in determining the form of information collection, in reducing the time for developing a topic and in determining the volume of information collected. An important role belongs to the scientific supervisor of research work. It limits and directs the search, helps to understand the flow of information, and discard secondary sources.

Each source must be carefully studied, and the guiding idea of ​​the entire analysis of information should be to justify the relevance and prospects of the purpose of scientific research. Each source is analyzed from the point of view of its historical scientific contribution to the solution and development of this topic. At the same time, the role of theory, experiment and the value of production recommendations are carefully analyzed. Based on the results of processing the information, methodological conclusions are drawn and the results of the critical analysis are summed up. The conclusions should highlight the following issues: the relevance and novelty of the chosen topic; latest achievements in the field of theoretical and experimental research on the topic; the most current theoretical and experimental problems; recommendations currently under development; technical feasibility and economic efficiency of developments. Based on these conclusions, the purpose and specific objectives of scientific research are formulated.

It is very important to keep in mind that any research focused on solving theoretical problems can be continued as applied research. At the first stage, we obtain some standard solution to the problem, and then translate it into specific conditions. Therefore, it is quite rightly said that there is nothing more practical than a good theory. But good applied research cannot always be translated into theoretical conclusions. It is necessary that, from the very beginning, factual data be described in appropriate terms related to theoretical premises (hypotheses). It is not so easy to regroup the collected data according to a different principle from the original one. That is why the researcher accumulates empirical material based on a clear goal setting.

A different logic governs the actions of the researcher if he sets himself a directly practical goal. He begins work on the program, based on the specifics of a given social object and an understanding of the practical problems to be solved. Only after this does he turn to the literature in search of an answer to the question: is there a standard solution to the problems that have arisen, or a special theory related to the subject? If there is no such solution, further work is carried out according to the scheme of theoretical and applied research. If such a solution exists, hypotheses of applied research are constructed as different options for “reading” standard solutions in relation to specific conditions.

The main goal is formulated as theoretical and applied, then when developing the program, the main attention is paid to the study of scientific literature on this issue, the construction of a hypothetical general concept of the subject of research, a clear semantic and empirical interpretation of the initial concepts, the identification of a scientific problem and the logical analysis of working hypotheses. The specific object of research is determined only after this preliminary research work has been completed at the level of theoretical search.

Determining the purpose of the research allows us to further streamline the process of scientific research in the form of a sequence of solutions to the main, particular, and also additional tasks. The main and particular tasks are logically connected, the particular ones follow from the main ones and are means of solving the main research questions.

In addition to the main and specific tasks, additional ones may arise. These latter are not necessarily logically related to the purpose and main objectives of the study. The main objectives of the study correspond to its target setting, while additional ones are set as if to prepare for future research, to test side hypotheses not related to this problem, to solve some methodological issues.

So, the purpose of the study logically dictates the structure of its main tasks, theoretical and practical, the latter requiring clarification in the form of a number of particular program tasks. In addition, a certain limited number of side, additional tasks can be set. The researcher must be prepared for the fact that as the research process develops, particular problems will be clarified, new ones will arise, and so on until the end of the work. Much depends on external circumstances that do not arise from the objectives of the study. For example, the individual interests of members of the research team, the state of social demand, the availability of financial resources for research and other tasks.

The research stage of the scientific process ends with a summary, including proof of hypotheses, conclusions and recommendations, scientific experiments, correction of initial proposals, and a literary presentation of the research process. The conclusions and recommendations made based on the study are completed with a literary presentation in the form of an abstract, scientific report, article, monograph, report or dissertation.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can say that scientific research assumes that at all stages of work we are guided by its goals and objectives. They form a guiding thread, the evasion of which makes the work chaotic and often ineffective in the sense that the results achieved are useful and interesting not for the sake of which the research was undertaken. Program goals and objectives of the study discipline the researcher’s work and increase its efficiency.

It can also be noted that the process of scientific research, the result of which is a discovery, covers the stage of formulating and assessing the problem, discovery, generation and justification of new scientific ideas. And although science does not have any infallible method for generating new scientific ideas and hypotheses, it does have a wide variety of methods, techniques, means and modes of reasoning that largely regulate and facilitate the research process. The inadequacy of existing approaches to the problem of scientific discovery lies, first of all, in the fact that they are guided by the obviously unrealistic idea that the researcher works alone, isolated from the scientific community and research methods developed by science. In fact, the research process in science is determined by socio-historical, ideological and specifically scientific requirements and conditions. Consequently, the search process in science is not reduced to a collection of random discoveries and sudden insights. In fact, what is accidental here is due to the need to solve pressing problems in the development of scientific knowledge. It is random which researcher, under what specific conditions and in what form will make a discovery, but it is by no means accidental that this discovery appears precisely at a certain period in the development of science.

From all that has been said, the conclusion follows that interest in issues of scientific discovery will not subside until the relative truths surrounding us turn into absolute ones, which, as it seems to us, will never happen.

List of used literature

1. Baskakov A.Ya. Methodology of scientific research / Baskakov A.Ya., Tulenkov N.V. - Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. - K.: MAUP, 2004 - P.32

2. Bezuglov I.G. Fundamentals of scientific research / Bezuglov I.G., Lebedinsky V.V., Bezuglov A.I. - M.: Publishing house: Academic project, 2008. - P.78

3. Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology / Rubinstein S.L. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - P.43

4. Ushakov E.V. Introduction to the philosophy and methodology of science / Ushakov E.V. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2005. - P.46

5. Shklyar M.F. Fundamentals of scientific research / Shklyar M.F. - M.: Publishing house: Dashkov and Co., 2009. - P.148

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-- [ Page 1 ] --

Shitov S. B.

"Fundamentals of Research"

Section 1. Science and scientific research.

Lecture 1, 2. Concept

Science in the modern world can be viewed in various aspects: as knowledge

and activities for the production of knowledge, as a system of personnel training, as a direct

nal productive force, as part of spiritual culture.

The concept of “science” was formed gradually over the centuries and continues to evolve. Translated from Latin, “scientia” means knowledge. There are many definitions of science, for example, I. Kant wrote that science is a system, that is, a body of knowledge put in order on the basis of certain principles.

“Science... is, first of all, knowledge;

it seeks general laws connecting a large number of particular facts” (Bertrand Russell), etc.

But not all knowledge is science. Scientific knowledge reflects stable, repeating connections between the phenomena of reality, expressed in laws.

The essence of scientific knowledge lies in the reliable generalization of facts, in the fact that behind the random it finds the necessary, natural, behind the individual - the general and on this basis makes predictions of various phenomena and events.

Features of scientific knowledge:

1. Foresight and conscious formation of the future - the vital meaning of any science can be characterized as follows: to know in order to foresee and foresee in order to act.

2. Objectivity of scientific knowledge - the task of science is to give a true reflection of the processes being studied, an objective picture of what exists. Therefore, science strives to eliminate all subjective layers introduced by man. For a person, the world is not an objective reality that exists independently of him. A person lives in the world and every phenomenon, process, thing has for him specific value, cause certain emotions, feelings, assessments. The world is always subjectively colored, perceived through the prism of human desires and interests.

3. Systematicity of scientific knowledge - scientific knowledge is knowledge organized into a scientific theory, logically coherent, consistent. An example of such logical harmony is mathematics. For a long time it was considered the model of science, and all other scientific disciplines tried to be like it.

Thus, the concept of “science” has several basic meanings:

1. Science is understood as the sphere of human activity aimed at developing and systematizing new knowledge about nature, society, thinking and knowledge of the surrounding world.

2. Science acts as a result of this activity - a system of acquired scientific knowledge.

3. Science is understood as one of the forms of social consciousness, a social institution. That is, it represents a system of relationships between scientific organizations and members of the scientific community, and also includes systems of scientific information, norms and values ​​of science, etc.

Consequently, science is the activity of producing objectively true knowledge and the result of this activity: systematized, reliable, practically verified knowledge.

Taken together, science is simultaneously a system of knowledge, its spiritual production, and practical activity based on it.

As a type of activity, science is characterized by:

1. A certain system of values, its own special motivation, which determines the activity of a scientist. This is the value of truth, that is, the attitude towards obtaining objectively true knowledge. The value of reason as the main tool for achieving truth. The value of new knowledge, which, in fact, is the result of the scientist’s activity. In general, science as its basis has a special mentality, a special type of thinking, which is characterized by rationalism, the desire for knowledge, independence of judgment, willingness to admit one’s mistakes, honesty, sociability, willingness to cooperate, creativity, and selflessness.

2. A certain set of “tools” - technical devices, equipment, etc., used in scientific activities. Currently, this component of science is acquiring great importance. The equipment of scientific work largely determines its effectiveness.

3. A set of methods used to obtain new knowledge.

4. The method of organizing scientific activity. Science now is a complex social institution, which includes three main components: research (production of new knowledge);

applications (bringing new knowledge to its practical use);

training of scientific personnel. All these components of science are organized in the form of corresponding institutions: universities, research institutes, academies, design bureaus, laboratories, etc.

The immediate goals of science are to obtain knowledge about the objective and subjective world, to comprehend objective truth.

Objectives of science:

1. Collection, description, analysis, synthesis and explanation of facts.

2. Discovery of the laws of development of nature, society, thinking and knowledge.

3. Systematization of acquired knowledge.

4. Explanation of the essence of phenomena and processes.

5. Forecasting events, phenomena and processes.

6. Establishing directions and forms of practical use of acquired knowledge.

Science can be considered as a system consisting of: theory, methodology, research techniques and practice of implementing the results obtained.

Science can also be considered from the point of view of the interaction of the subject and object of knowledge, then it will include the following elements:

1. An object (subject) is what a specific science studies, what scientific knowledge is aimed at.

2. The subject is a specific researcher, scientific worker, specialist of a scientific organization, organization;

3. Scientific activity of subjects who use certain techniques, operations, methods to comprehend objective truth and discover the laws of reality.

Classification of sciences. Modern science is an extremely ramified collection of individual scientific branches.

The differentiation of sciences, mainly in the field of natural science, occurred especially quickly in modern times (XVI - XVIII centuries) and continues to this day. Individual sciences differ primarily in what is studied and how it is studied.

The subject of science is what is being studied. Research method is how the research is carried out.

The subject of science as a whole is all of reality, that is, various forms and types of moving matter, including society, man, culture, science, art, etc.

Scientific disciplines, which together form the system of sciences as a whole, can be conditionally divided into 3 large groups (subsystems):

1. According to the subject of research, science is divided into two main groups: natural and social (social).

2. Based on function and purpose, fundamental and applied (technical) sciences are distinguished.

3. By research method - theoretical and empirical, etc.

There is no sharp line between these subsystems - a number of scientific disciplines occupy an intermediate position. So, for example, at the intersection of technical and social science there is technical aesthetics, between natural and technical science - bionics, between natural and social science - economic geography.

Each of these subsystems, in turn, forms a system of individual sciences coordinated in a variety of ways by subject and methodological connections, which makes the problem of their detailed classification extremely complex and not completely resolved to this day. Along with traditional research, there are interdisciplinary and complex research conducted through several different scientific disciplines, the specific combination of which is determined by the nature of the relevant problem.

Basic sciences are sometimes called "pure" sciences. As a rule, fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development, creating a theoretical foundation for them.

The main goal of applied sciences is the application of the results of fundamental sciences to solve cognitive and socio-practical problems. In modern science, applied science accounts for up to 80-90% of all research and allocations.

Applied sciences can develop with a predominance of both theoretical and practical problems. For example, in modern physics, electrodynamics and quantum mechanics play a fundamental role, the application of which to the knowledge of specific subject areas forms various branches of theoretical applied physics - metal physics, semiconductor physics, etc.

At the intersection of applied sciences and practice, a special area of ​​research is developing - these are developments that translate the results of applied sciences into the form of technological processes, structures, industrial materials, etc. Further application of their results to practice gives rise to a variety of practical applied sciences - metal science, semiconductor technology, etc., the direct connection of which with production is carried out by corresponding specific developments. All technical sciences are applied.

Natural science is a system of sciences about nature, theoretical basis industry, agriculture and medicine. Physics, chemistry, geology and biology are among the main branches of modern natural science. In addition, in modern natural science there are many transitional sciences that indicate the absence of any sharp boundaries between its various branches and the interpenetration of previously separate sciences.

The subject of study of the humanities is society and man.

Social sciences can be grouped into three areas:

1. Sociological sciences that study society as a whole.

2. Economic sciences, reflecting social production and relationships between people in the production process.

3. State legal sciences, the subject of study of which is state structure, politics, relations in social systems.

The sciences about man and his thinking constitute a separate scientific direction. Man is considered as an object of study by various sciences in various aspects.

The humanities consider man from the point of view of his interests as the highest value of the universe. Human mental abilities are studied by psychology - the science of human consciousness. Forms of correct thinking are studied by logic and mathematics. Mathematics, as the science of quantitative relations of reality, is also included in the natural sciences, in relation to which it acts as a methodology.

Philosophy occupies a special place in the system of knowledge that humanity possesses. On the one hand, it is a doctrine about man as a thinking and acting being, on the other hand, it is closely connected with the worldview and worldview as a whole.

There are certain similarities between philosophy and mathematics. Just as mathematics can be used in almost all sciences to study any phenomena and processes, so philosophy can and should become the most important component of any research. Research is an activity of thinking.

Thus, in the classifier of areas of higher professional education, the following sciences are distinguished:

1. Natural sciences and mathematics - mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geography, hydrometeorology, geology, ecology, etc.

2. Humanities and socio-economic sciences - philosophy, cultural studies, philology, linguistics, journalism, bibliology, history, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, regional studies, management, economics, art, physical education, commerce, agroeconomics, statistics, art, law, etc.

3. Technical sciences - construction, printing, telecommunications, metallurgy, mining, electronics and microelectronics, geodesy, radio engineering, architecture, etc.;

agricultural sciences - agronomy, animal science, veterinary medicine, agroengineering, forestry, fishery, etc.

In statistical collections, the following sectors of science are usually distinguished: academic, industrial, university and factory.

Basic patterns, problems and contradictions in the development of science.

Problems, contradictions and patterns of development of science are studied within the framework of a new science that has emerged recently and is called scientific studies. Its subject is the structure of science and the laws of its development;

dynamics of scientific activity;

economics, planning and organization of science;

forms of interaction between science and other spheres of material and spiritual life of society.

1) To date, a number of internal laws of the development of science have been formulated. First of all, this is the law of exponential (accelerating, avalanche-like) development, which has manifested itself in the last 250 years.

Its essence boils down to the fact that at the present stage the volume of scientific knowledge doubles every 10...15 years. This is reflected in the growth of scientific information, the number of discoveries, and the number of people engaged in scientific activities (curve 1 in Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Patterns of development of scientific research over time 1 – exponential;

2 – probable curve However, there is an opinion that the exponential nature of the development of science should change over time and will obey curve 2 (Fig. 1), which is due to limited resources (people, appropriations).

A consequence of the accelerating development of science is the rapid aging of accumulated knowledge. Valuable recommendations for future specialists follow from this pattern.

The learning process does not end with receiving a diploma of education, but only transforms into a new quality: independent replenishment of knowledge in accordance with the achievements of science and technology based on the skills acquired at the university.

The avalanche-like development of science is accompanied by the formation of new directions, each of which gives rise to new problems. Such trends in the development of science are reflected in the laws of differentiation and integration.

2) In accordance with the law of differentiation, the development of new areas of knowledge leads to the fragmentation of fundamental disciplines into more and more specialized areas, which improve their own research methods and study their micro-objects.

The synthesis of knowledge at the same time leads to the consolidation of science, which is reflected by the law of integration. Initially, science was formed on a subject basis, but through a problem orientation it gradually moved to broad mathematization, to the formation of a systematic approach to solving scientific problems, and to strengthening the connection between fundamental and applied research.

3) The next law, associated with the cumulative nature of the development of science, is called the law of correspondence. It means that a new broader theory must contain a previous one, proven by practice, as a special or limiting case. One of the basic laws is continuity in the accumulation of knowledge, which leads to a single line of irreversible, progressive development. Continuity in the development of science is inextricably linked with its international character, since the knowledge system is formed thanks to the achievements of scientists from different countries, which is ensured through scientific publications (books, articles, patents, etc.).

One of the main features of modern science is its convergence with production.

If in the early stages technology and production were ahead of the development of science, setting tasks for it, then at present there has been a change in the relationship between science and production. Formed one system“science-technology-production”, where the leading role belongs to science, which is prerequisite scientific and technological progress.

The leading role of science is due to the involvement in the sphere of human practical activity of new types of energy, new technologies, new substances with previously unknown properties.

Science, through its methods, improves the components of production: the means of labor, the object of labor and the work itself.

There are three main ways of transforming science into a productive force:

1. Creation, based on scientific achievements, of new technological processes that increase labor productivity and improve the production process (until the 19th century).

2. Improvement of man himself as the main productive force of society (XIX-XX centuries). In production, equipment is increasingly used, the maintenance of which requires not only highly qualified workers, but also fundamental training of specialists in mathematics, physics, computer science, cybernetics, economics, etc. Labor productivity began to be largely determined by the development of rationalization and inventive work. Scientific creativity, previously characteristic only of scientists, is becoming a need and necessity for many people, regardless of their professional affiliation.

3. Improvement of production processes, starting from the scientific organization of labor at an individual workplace and ending with the overall strategy for the development of society. The changing role of science has led to the scientific and technological revolution, which is currently taking place all over the world and consists of a radical and qualitative transformation of production based on the transformation of science into a leading factor in the development of its development (comprehensive mechanization, automation, robotization of production, introduction of nanotechnologies and etc.).

Functions of science in the life of society.

Since ancient times, the main function of science has been associated with the production and systematization of objectively true knowledge. It comes down to several components: description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena being studied.

But one cannot limit oneself only to the description and explanation of existing facts.

Foresight and forecasting of new phenomena and events are of much greater practical interest, which provides the opportunity to act knowledgeably both in the present and especially in the future.

Other social functions of science:

1. Cultural and ideological function.

2. Educational function of science.

3. The function of science as a direct productive force.

4. The function of science as a social force.

The cultural and ideological function of science is a fairly ancient social function of science. Elements of a scientific worldview were first formed in ancient society in connection with the criticism of mythological views and the formation of rational views of the world. Science exerts its influence on a person’s worldview, first of all, through the scientific picture of the world, in which the general principles of the world order are expressed in a concentrated form. As a result of the implementation of the cultural and ideological function, scientific ideas have become an integral part of the culture of society.

The educational function of science - this function manifested itself mainly in the 20th century. Nowadays, it is impossible to become an educated person without knowledge of the basics of fundamental sciences; modern education shapes the scientific worldview of an individual.

The educational function of science is close to the ideological function.

The function of science as a direct productive force. Conditions that contributed to the transformation of science into a direct productive force:

creation of permanent channels for the practical use of scientific knowledge;

the emergence of such branches of activity as applied research and development;

creation of centers and networks of scientific and technical information.

In the 20th century, the increasingly widespread use of scientific knowledge became a prerequisite for the development of modern production. The function of science as a direct productive force manifested itself especially clearly during the period of the scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the 20th century. During this period, the latest achievements of science played a huge role in the automation of labor-intensive production, in the creation of fundamentally new technologies, in the use of computers and other information technology in a wide variety of sectors of the economy.

The promotion of the latest scientific achievements into production was greatly facilitated by the creation of special associations for scientific research and design development (R&D), which were tasked with bringing scientific projects to their direct use in production. The establishment of such an intermediate link between theoretical and applied sciences and their implementation in specific design developments contributed to the rapprochement of scientific research with production and the transformation of science into a real productive force.

Currently, the economic well-being of countries directly depends on the state of their field of science. Only those countries that pay serious attention to scientific research, successfully master high-tech technologies, mobilize sufficiently powerful financial, information, production, and intellectual resources for this, lead in the modern political-economic race. Countries that cannot keep up with the pace of such competition (or do not participate in it at all) quickly find themselves in a “dead end”

social development and are doomed to forever play a secondary role in the international arena.

The function of science as a social force is expressed in the fact that in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution of the second half of the 20th century, scientific research began to be increasingly applied to processes occurring in society. Socio-economic and cultural sciences and humanities began to play a regulatory role in various spheres of social activity. In the last decades of the 20th century, the achievements and methods of science began to be widely used to develop large-scale programs in the field of economic development and in the social sphere. The function of science as a social force is clearly manifested in solving global problems modern society. At present, when the threat of global crises in the environment, energy, and in the areas of raw materials and food increases, the social role of science becomes especially significant.

Lecture 3, 4. Science as a system of knowledge.

Science and ordinary knowledge.

Science is a specific activity of people, the main goal of which is to obtain knowledge about reality.

Knowledge is the main product of scientific activity; the products of science also include the scientific style of rationality, various instruments, installations, and techniques used outside of science, primarily in production.

Criteria of scientific knowledge and its characteristic features. Systematization is one of the criteria of scientific character. Scientific systematization is characterized by a desire for completeness and consistency.

The desire for validity and evidence of knowledge is an important criterion for scientific character.

Various methods of substantiating scientific knowledge are used. To substantiate empirical knowledge, multiple tests, recourse to statistical data, etc. are used. When substantiating theoretical concepts, their consistency, compliance with empirical data, and ability to describe and predict phenomena are checked.

Scientific knowledge as a system has a certain structure, the elements of which are: facts, laws, theories, pictures of the world.

The scientific picture of the world (SPW) is a special form of systematization of knowledge, a qualitative generalization and ideological synthesis of various scientific theories. Being a holistic system of ideas about the general properties and patterns of the objective world, the scientific picture of the world exists as a complex structure that includes as components the general scientific picture of the world and the picture of the world of individual sciences. In the process of everyday activities of people, some knowledge about the properties is formed things and phenomena of the surrounding world is everyday practical knowledge. The so-called “common sense” plays a large role in everyday consciousness. This concept is not precisely defined and may change over time. It is based on a fairly realistic idea of ​​the world around us. In ordinary consciousness, knowledge is acquired and used spontaneously. Reasoning within the framework of common sense gives an adequate idea of ​​reality, therefore, they are based on the same laws of traditional logic that are present in the process of achieving scientific knowledge.

There is a certain commonality between scientific and everyday knowledge: they orient a person in the world and are the basis of practical activity. There is also a certain continuity between ordinary knowledge and scientific knowledge, that is, between common sense, on which ordinary knowledge is based, and critical thinking, characteristic of science. This continuity and connection between them is manifested in the fact that scientific thinking often arises on the basis of common sense assumptions. But in the future, science corrects, clarifies these assumptions, or even replaces them with new ones.

For example, the everyday idea of ​​the movement of the Sun around the Earth, on which thinkers of antiquity and the Middle Ages relied, was subsequently subjected to scientific criticism in the Renaissance (XVI century) and replaced (thanks to the teachings of N. Copernicus and his followers) by completely new ideas.

But common sense itself also does not remain unchanged. Over time, gradually it increasingly includes truths firmly established in science. In this regard, a point of view arose according to which scientific knowledge is only improved, clarified ordinary knowledge. This point of view was expressed by the famous scientist Thomas Huxley (1825 -1895), an English zoologist, popularizer of science and defender of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin: “I believe,” he wrote, “that science is nothing more than trained and organized common sense. She differs from him in the same way as a veteran differs from an untrained recruit.”

However, science is still not a simple continuation and improvement of knowledge based on common sense. The latter can serve only as a beginning, a starting point for the emergence of new, critically rational scientific knowledge. In this regard, the famous philosopher of science Karl Popper noted that “science, philosophy, rational thinking - all begin with common sense.”

Therefore, one should not absolutely oppose scientific knowledge to everyday knowledge and reject any connection between them. Any scientist who uses a set of special scientific terms, concepts, and methods in his research work is also included in the sphere of non-specialized everyday experience. For, being a scientist, he does not cease to be just a man.

At the same time, science should be distinguished from everyday knowledge, obtained spontaneously - empirically and characterized by the following features.

1. Everyday knowledge is fragmentary and not systematized.

2. Ordinary judgment and inference are isolated generalizations of the results of some random observations. Therefore, ordinary knowledge, due to its scattered nature, cannot be combined into some kind of holistic theoretical system.

3. Since the acquisition of such knowledge is limited by the framework of everyday practical experience, they, in principle, cannot use either scientific-experimental or theoretical research methods.

4. For everyday knowledge there are no reliable ways to verify and justify them.

Thus, everyday knowledge is one of the forms of extra-scientific knowledge.

Science and philosophy.

Philosophy (Greek phileo - love, sofia - wisdom, literally love in wisdom) is a form of spiritual culture aimed at posing, analyzing and solving fundamental issues of worldview.

Philosophy, like science, has a theoretical form, but, strictly speaking, philosophy is not a science, for example, like physics, chemistry, biology, mechanics, geology, history, etc.

Each science studies a specific object, a certain fragment of the world, a certain side of it, uses special methods that are incomprehensible to anyone except specialist scientists, relies on experiment and accurate observations, uses instruments, etc.

There is nothing like this in the sphere of philosophical knowledge. Philosophy deals not with an object, but with a subject, a person capable of creativity, goal-setting, and self-improvement. The subject of philosophy is the relationship “man - world”.

Thus, philosophy is a person’s understanding of the conditions of his existence, the construction of a general picture of the world, the creation of a general idea of ​​the world and man, of man’s place in the world. This is the difference between philosophy and other sciences.

Any philosophical system expresses a certain attitude of a person to the world, his well-being in the world. There is always an assessment and a value-based approach here. This is the similarity between philosophy and art, where the world is not just described, but experienced, where a certain mood, attitude towards the world, towards a person, towards life is expressed. By creating this or that image of the world, philosophy also sets a certain attitude towards it, a certain mood, a certain experience of being. And this, in turn, can determine the direction of development of culture and society as a whole.

Philosophy gives science projects of theoretical problems, ideas, methods and rules for the operation of thinking. Unlike scientific ones, the correctness of solving philosophical problems cannot be directly tested by practice. Within the framework of philosophy, the human spirit is freed from the scientific framework; intuition makes it possible to find ideas that are still unprovable by science and have potential power.

At a certain stage in the development of science, certain philosophical ideas become in demand, and individual teachings become relevant. Therefore, philosophy plays a decisive role in the formation of a scientific paradigm (Greek paradeigma - example, sample), which includes established scientific theories, rules, and philosophical ideas.

Science in every historical period develops within the framework of the established paradigm.

The history of science shows that the development of scientific ideas occurs within the framework of fundamental principles belonging to philosophy. In this sense, science and philosophy are inseparable from each other.

For example, philosophical contemplation of nature gave birth to natural philosophy - the first form of existence of natural science, which combined scientific and technical thinking and the features of philosophy that produces generalizations, and some ideas that arose in the depths of natural philosophy received later scientific development.

Science as an activity.

Science is not only scientific knowledge, but also a special kind of activity. In the course of scientific activity, the subject itself is created to a certain extent. At the individual level, it is not a professionally trained specialist who has the appropriate skills and knowledge. A subject “grown” by science must even have special personal qualities, such as criticality, honesty, determination, freedom of thinking, and the ability to solve non-standard problems.

Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy” N 127-FZ dated August 23, 1996 (last amendment dated July 21, 2011 N 254-FZ) considers “science” as a form of intellectual activity and distinguishes between two types (Article 2. Basic concepts used in this Federal Law):

“Scientific (research) activities (hereinafter referred to as scientific activities) activities aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge, including:

applied scientific research - research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems.

Scientific and technical activities are activities aimed at obtaining and applying new knowledge to solve technological, engineering, economic, social, humanitarian and other problems, ensuring the functioning of science, technology and production as a unified system.

Experimental development is an activity that is based on knowledge acquired as a result of scientific research or on the basis of practical experience, and is aimed at preserving human life and health, creating new materials, products, processes, devices, services, systems or methods and their further improvement.”

The most fundamental result of scientific activity is a scientifically cognitive, or, more broadly, rational-theoretical attitude towards the world.

Scientific activity is a rather complex process that includes many specific types of cognitive activity:

thinking based on the application of strict logical and mathematical methods;

procedures for criticism and justification;

processes of heuristic search and hypothesizing, including imagination and intuition;

laboratory and experimental practice using the most modern technical means;

designing models;

and much more.

Thus, scientific research and scientific and technical activities are interconnected, but what are the significant differences between them?

The result of scientific research activities can be dissertations, monographs, articles, reports, methodological recommendations and other forms of publication, which reflect the results of the creation and research of hypotheses, theories or discoveries.

Discovery is the establishment of previously unknown objectively existing patterns, properties and phenomena of the surrounding reality. The products of scientific research activities can create the prerequisites for the development of inventions.

Inventions can be methods, devices, substances.

Scientific and technical activities lead to the creation of new scientific and technical solutions: inventions, industrial designs, utility models.

Characteristics of scientific activity:

1. Sociality. The generalized subject of the scientific-cognitive process is society as a whole, and the specialized agent of scientific activity is the scientific community. The social and communicative nature of scientific activity is manifested in many qualities: in the exchange of scientific information between scientists (publications, messages), in communication processes between scientists and others social groups, in the very method of scientific research, which is often conducted by large teams.

2. Determination. Scientific research is not a chaotic action. Scientific research moves towards a theoretical goal, towards solving existing problems. Of course, scientific knowledge also contains spontaneous components. In particular, experiments can be carried out, not supported by any verified theoretical considerations, to satisfy simple curiosity. But these individual moments of spontaneous search should not be opposed general principle scientific activity - the principle of activity of the mind. Scientific reason must “force nature to answer its questions, and not drag along as if on its lead” (I. Kant).

3. Methodical. In science, it is important not just to find a solution to a problem, but to methodologically consolidate it. The validity of the methods is of fundamental importance. A scientist must always have the ability to quickly achieve one or another result, must be able to control the process of obtaining knowledge, and be able to lead others to the same result. This means that a scientist not only must be able to do something, but he is required to be able to give an account of his actions, he must be able to describe his basic operations, the rules that guided him. The scientist must be able to convey his operational skills with a reasonable degree of accuracy. In other words, in science, the intellectual technology of obtaining knowledge is no less important than the content of knowledge itself.

4. Self-correcting. Scientific activity is aimed not only at understanding the world around us, but also, in a certain sense, at itself: it increases its own rationality. This is a cognitive activity that simultaneously seeks ways to increase its own effectiveness. The ultimate degree of reflexivity of scientific knowledge is a specially carried out methodological analysis of scientific activity.

5. Progression. Scientific activity is focused on the constant increase in knowledge, on innovations and discoveries. The constant growth of scientific knowledge is an essential parameter of scientific activity; only in this case does science continue to remain a science (Karl Popper). However, the forward movement of science does not mean that science progresses linearly (or cumulatively, from the Latin cumulare - “accumulate”), adding new knowledge to the previous ones, recorded as an asset of eternal and unshakable truths. No, science is constantly revising its content, but the very desire for constant expansion of the subject area, growth of knowledge, and improvement of theories remains stable.

6. Creativity. Scientific activity is, ultimately, the creativity of knowledge.

Science and creativity. Scientific, technical and technical creativity.

Creativity is a human activity characterized by fundamental novelty. Creativity takes place in any area of ​​human activity - artistic, political, economic and administrative, etc.

There are scientific, scientific-technical and technical creativity.

Scientific creativity is an activity aimed at solving scientific problems (non-standard tasks) in situations where they are underdetermined by existing conditions and methods.

Scientific creativity satisfies the need for knowledge of the surrounding world, the result of which is discoveries.

In general, the phenomenon of creativity contains a certain shade of paradox.

On the one hand, it seems impossible to describe and understand creativity within the framework of a purely rationalistic approach, since creativity generally looks like something illogical, violating all methodological canons - an important role in the processes of creativity is played by a sublime emotional state called inspiration.

On the other hand, creativity in science is precisely scientific creativity, which is initially consistent with the guidelines of scientific activity, and the results of creative thinking turn out to be justified by rationally verifiable intellectual constructs.

A possible strategy for overcoming this difficulty is to clearly separate the rational and non-rational aspects of scientific creativity and scientific discovery.

The first point of view (K. Popper, H. Hans Reichenbach) is based on the fact that the process of scientific creativity itself, culminating in a discovery, cannot be studied in a logical and methodological sense. In logical and methodological terms, we are not interested in how the scientist came to the discovery, but what is important is how these intellectual products of creativity were substantiated, how they were tested and proven. In other words, a scientist can create as he pleases, but the final product must comply with all logical and methodological standards of scientific knowledge. Thus, there is no rationally measurable path from facts to hypothesis, and scientific thinking moves from hypothesis to facts, from conjecture to its experimental verification (hypothetico-deductive model).

The second point of view (Norwood Hanson) is based on the fact that a scientist begins his work not with a hypothesis, but with an analysis of facts. Consequently, there is a complex web of theoretical and empirical factors influencing the process of scientific research. The configuration of the data suggests to the scientist some of the most likely hypotheses.

So, in the course of studying scientific creativity, researchers came to the need to bring together the contexts of discovery and justification and search for new logical and methodological means of analyzing scientific thinking.

Models of scientific creative search. There are two main models:

1. Linear model of scientific creative search.

2. Structural-system model of scientific creative search.

The linear model of scientific creative search is a logical sequence of actions:

1. Statement of the problem.

2. Analysis of the task.

3. Finding a solution to the problem.

4. Finding a solution.

5. Further refinement of the solution.

From a psychological point of view, in the mind in the process of scientific creative search, the following occurs:

1. Initial preparation for the search - the scientist carries out an initial analysis of the problem, clarifies the conditions of the problem, tries to apply already known techniques and somehow narrow the scope of the search. Having failed to achieve a quick solution, the researcher again takes actions to overcome the identified difficulties. As a result, at some point he may postpone his search for a while and do something else. However, the search process does not stop, but only moves to an unconscious level of mental activity.

2. Incubation is the stage of hidden activity of searching for a solution.

3. Insight (from the English insight - “the ability to penetrate, insight”) is an insight when a scientist suddenly finds the right solution, which often turns out to be significantly different from the options he expected at the beginning.

4. Justification - when the researcher clarifies and verifies the solution, its further development and reasoned presentation.

It is in incubation and insight during the hidden unconscious activity of consciousness that creativity appears as a process that cannot be rationally understood, that is, intuition comes to the fore here.

Traditionally, a terminological division has been established into discursive thinking (from the Latin discurrere - “disintegrate, separate”) and its antipode - intuitive. Discursive is an intellectual activity based on clearly separated logical procedures.

Intuition (from the Latin intuitio - “close scrutiny, contemplation”) is a complex and little-studied psychological process;

a decision is called intuitive when a person comes to it in some unconscious way and cannot give an account of how it arose. An intuitive decision is characterized subjectively as unexpected, sudden. In its content, it turns out to be an original vision of the subject being studied, the structure of its interrelations, or the discovery of a new research method. An intuitive decision is accompanied by a special feeling of complete understanding, unraveling, penetration into the essence of things, and a firm conviction in the truth of the idea that has come.

Thus, scientific research is intertwined with discursive efforts based on rationally justified and proven techniques, and intuitive mental moves with fundamentally innovative content. It is necessary to understand that the unconscious intuitive search of a scientist does not represent something fundamentally different from actions in a normal state, but is guided by the same guidelines that are set by the discursive procedures of scientific activity (although in its content it is, of course, presented as quite free , liberated movements of thought).

Therefore, one should not sharply separate the discursive and intuitive components of scientific creativity.

Thus, there is no privileged access to scientific knowledge through some kind of intuitive insight. There is only the ability to think methodically and search. Research intuition is not some lucky gift, but is developed by training the scientist through hard work. The professionalism of a scientist is a complex complex of explicit and implicit knowledge, intellectual skills and abilities.

Structural-system model of scientific creative search. The linear model of scientific research gives only an extremely general idea of ​​this process. In reality, scientific search is more like a set of cyclic structures.

Therefore, a unifying model of scientific creative search, taking into account elements of chronological sequence and structural-semantic relationships when working on a scientific problem, is presented in Fig. 1.

According to this model:

1. Work on solving the problem begins with an analysis of the initial conditions. This is the most important process to which the researcher returns repeatedly in subsequent attempts to solve it. In this case, a preliminary selection of models takes place to present the problem in the most convenient form and a search for an adequate strategy of action. The central role in all processes of working on a problem is played by an inquiry into the past experience of the researcher - identifying analogies of the problem with previous problems, using proven solution techniques.

2. The result of the analysis is a preliminary solution plan, which is also subject to analysis. Here the scientist carries out trial implementations of the plan, on the basis of which he compares, evaluates and selects various solution options. At some point, the researcher may settle on the most interesting idea for a solution, which usually appears to him subjectively in the form of a guess. However, subsequent verification of the guess may return him again to revising the conditions of the problem and developing a new version of the solution plan;

this will be the next round of the research cycle.

3. As a result, some guess may turn out to be the most fruitful, opening the way to a solution (subjectively, it is usually perceived as insight). After checking the guess, the scientist comes up with the final idea for the solution. However, the process does not end there: there is a long period of idea development ahead, its further development, reasoned presentation of the solution, inclusion of the resulting solution in the general scientific situation that currently exists in this subject area.

Rice. 1. Model of scientific search Factors influencing the processes of scientific creative search. There are factors that both positively and negatively influence the processes of creative search.

Positive factors: developed imagination, associative thinking, previous experience of successful research activities, self-confidence, intellectual independence, strong motivation.

Negative factors: psychological rigidity, i.e. the desire to act according to a pattern, excessive influence of authorities, fear of possible failure, etc.

Motivation for scientific creativity. There are two sides to scientific creativity:

1. Cognitive (cognitive) component - associated with the substantive aspects of the research situation itself.

2. Motivational component - means the personal significance for the researcher of the problem he is solving, the degree of involvement and interest of the individual in finding a solution.

The role of motivation is so great that some psychologists even come to the conclusion that the difference between a talented working scientist and an unproductive colleague should be sought not so much in special mental abilities, but rather in the strength of motivation. High level The researcher's motivation is determination, sustained interest in the subject, and general intellectual energy.

The motivation for scientific creativity is a complex intersection of various factors that form each scientist’s own individual “pattern” of motives. The set of specific motives that guide the activities of a productive scientist can be very diverse, for example, intellectual pleasure from the creative process itself and the associated inspiration, satisfaction of moral and aesthetic needs, the spirit of competition, a sense of social significance of scientific work, personal self-realization.

There are also the most general prerequisites for motivating the creative behavior of a scientist: the most important prerequisites include freedom of creativity (freedom to choose a subject and means of research), involvement in one’s professional development among elite, productive scientific schools and, of course, social support and recognition.

Other factors influencing scientific creativity.

Age factor. On average, the most productive period is considered to be between 25 and 40 years of age. However, this figure in itself is meaningless, because does not take into account the diversity inherent in various sciences and groups of sciences. It is well known that mathematics is the science of the young, and social sciences, with rare exceptions, require a certain amount of years lived and acquired life experience.

But it should also be taken into account that age itself, being isolated from the specific working conditions of a scientist, is not a decisive prerequisite for creativity. For example, at a later age, a great scientist, as a rule, is realized not so much in personal projects as in his influence on students, so it would be simply wrong to consider him unproductive at this age. Therefore, the topic of age determination of scientific creativity remains open.

Socio-cultural factor. Scientific knowledge always develops in a certain socio-historical situation. This means that there is some correlation between the general situation (when some idea is literally floating in the air) and the emergence of a scientific achievement. This is also evidenced by the phenomenon of alternating ups and downs in scientific activity, when in one period there is an extraordinary concentration of brilliant scientists and major discoveries, in another there is relative calm. “The phenomenon of simultaneous discoveries in science is the rule rather than the exception,” sociologist R. Merton.

Communication factor. Creativity itself, although it is an individual process, is unthinkable outside of the communication of a scientist with the scientific community. A huge role in this is played by his close circle: the scientists with whom he studied, whose views had the greatest influence on him, and those with whom he polemicizes. A productive scientist turns out to be a center of attraction, an proactive participant in communication in the scientific community. This is reflected both in formal (citation index, development of his ideas in the publications of other scientists) and in informal, lively communication. Also, scientific schools are the center of intensive scientific communication, which directly creates creative motivation.

Scientific, technical and technical creativity.

Technology (from the Greek “techne” art, skill, skill) is the general name for various devices, mechanisms and devices that do not exist in nature and are manufactured by man to carry out production processes and serve the non-productive needs of society.

Scientific and technical creativity consists of studying the patterns of known phenomena with the aim of using them in practice. This type of creativity is based on applied sciences and various types of industry research, as a result of which new technical and technological solutions are developed. The result of this type of creative activity is mainly complex inventions.

Technical creativity is realized as a result of engineering activities aimed at developing new technical solutions based on known patterns. The result of technical creativity is simple inventions, rationalization proposals and design developments.

System approach in engineering creativity. An effective solution to an engineering problem is possible only on the basis of a comprehensive, holistic consideration of the system being developed and its development (change) in the process of interaction with the environment.

Engineer starting to develop a new technical system, must use a systems approach as a methodological basis for technical creativity, and a system is a set of elements connected technologically, structurally and functionally.

The systems approach involves considering an object as a system that has various connections between its elements. The systematic approach, being a not very strictly connected set of cognitive rules, does not provide specific recommendations in search activities, but helps to find the general direction of the search and see the problem more fully.

Basic principles of the systems approach:

1. The principle of integrity is the recognition that some collections of objects can manifest themselves as something whole, possessing properties that belong specifically to the whole (system). From this principle follows an important feature of the systems approach, which consists in the requirement not to limit oneself when developing new machines and devices to the analysis of their parts and the interaction between them, but to comprehend and take into account the properties of the system as a whole. For example, the combination of an ironing sole, a heating element in the form of a spiral, a temperature regulator, and a handle, assembled in a certain way, forms an electric iron, which is considered not as a set of parts, but as something whole, independent, with properties different from the properties of its parts.

2. The principle of compatibility of elements in a system - a system that has certain system properties can be built not from any elements, but only from those whose properties satisfy the requirements of compatibility. This means that the intrinsic properties of the elements (shape, size, contour, surface, color, physical and mechanical characteristics, etc.) must be such as to ensure their interaction with each other as parts of a single whole.

3. The principle of structure - the elements from which the system is created are not arbitrarily located in the system, but form a specific structure characteristic of a given system, described by some system-forming relationship expressing the relationship and interdependence between the elements in the system.

4. The principle of neutralization of dysfunctions - due to their internal properties or under the influence of the external environment, elements of the system can acquire properties and functions that do not correspond to the properties and functions of the system as a whole. Therefore, when creating new systems from a certain set of elements, in order to ensure the stability of the system, it is necessary to provide for the neutralization of dysfunctions.

5. The principle of adaptation - a technical system operating in a changing environment must have adaptation properties, i.e. the ability to rebuild its structure, parameters and functioning in order to meet the needs of the environment.

6. The principle of multifunctionality is the possibility of the existence of several goals or functions in a system.

7. The principle of complexity - when developing new technical systems, it is advisable to use an integrated approach, which consists in constructing and synthesizing multi-aspect models of the same system, as well as involving representatives of different specialties in the work in order to fully cover all problems and aspects.

8. The principle of iteration - an engineer, developing a complex technical system, cannot cover all possible situations at once, so his knowledge turns out to be incomplete and needs additions, clarifications, etc. The necessary completeness of knowledge and understanding is achieved only as a result of a series of iterations.

9. The principle of taking into account probabilistic factors - when creating new technical systems, there is a need for statistical research and probabilistic assessment of phenomena occurring in the system and in environment by collecting and processing relevant statistical data.

10. The principle of hierarchical decomposition - every element can be considered as a system when moving to a more detailed phase of analysis, and every system can be considered as a subsystem or element of a larger system.

11. The principle of variation - the existence of various alternatives technical solution systems, different ways to achieve the same goal.

12. The principle of mathematization - to facilitate the analysis and choice of solutions when developing technical systems using quantitative assessments of options, it is advisable to use mathematical methods of operations research, optimization and other systems analysis apparatus.

13. The principle of modeling is the construction and programming on a computer of models that simulate the functioning (behavior) of a technical system or its elements, which verifies the correctness of the decisions made embedded in the created object.

Technical solutions. Technical solutions are the result of the embodiment of scientific ideas into specific objects, structures, processes, substances. At the same time, they are the basis for the development of new technology and the creation of other inventions. Analysis and identification of the scientific basis of technical solutions and the ideas embedded in them make it possible to solve a wide range of other technical problems by analogy.

The fund of technical solutions is an illustration of the application of physical effects and phenomena, universal examples that express a scientific idea in such a general technical form that it becomes possible to directly use them in new technical problems and directly incorporate them into new technical solutions.

The Technical Solutions Fund can be used by an engineer:

when analyzing and selecting problems, searching for solution ideas;

synthesis of new technical objects;

for the purpose of comparative assessment of the technical and economic efficiency of the solution found in comparison with the known ones;

to forecast the development of science, technology and technology;

when drawing up an application for an invention.

Examples of funds of technical solutions: funds of enterprises, personal funds of technical solutions, patent files, scientific and technical articles and monographs.

Sources of replenishment of industry, personal and other funds of technical solutions:

printed materials containing information about inventions, industrial designs and trademarks in the form of descriptions of inventions for patents and copyright certificates published in relevant information publications.

Systematic replenishment by an engineer of his personal fund of technical solutions is an effective way to increase his creative potential and improve his qualifications.

Approximate solution diagram engineering problems.

1. Statement of the problem - the statement of a technical problem creates the prerequisites for finding its solution.

2. Collection of information – study of funds of technical solutions.

3. Analysis of the problem - a transition is made from the formulation of a technical problem to a model for its solution.

4. Modeling the problem - a model of the solution is created, while taking into account the available resources that can be used to solve the problem.

5. Determination of the ideal final result - using the existing model, an ideal solution to the problem is formulated.

6. Analysis of the progress of the solution - here it is important not only to find a solution, but also to describe it correctly, which increases the creative potential of the engineer. Basic documents reflecting the essence of a new technical solution: formulas, graphic materials, diagrams, drawings, programs, etc.

Thus, the quality and time of solving engineering problems are determined mainly by the “tool” that is used for this work: the more advanced the “tool”, the higher the quality and the less time spent. Accordingly, a computer with software is beyond any competition, representing a tool that is universal in its capabilities for the creative activity of an engineer.

The versatility of a computer lies, first of all, in the fact that, without changing the physical structure of the computer as such, its hardware, you can make the computer perform the most various functions. That is, to perform different functions the same physical device is used - a computer. Only the program is changeable.

Lecture 5, 6. Scientific research.

Scientific research. Types of scientific research. The form of existence and development of science is scientific research.

Scientific research is a process of study, experiment, conceptualization and testing of theory associated with the acquisition of scientific knowledge, as well as activities aimed at obtaining results useful for human activity, their implementation in production with further effect.

The object of scientific research is material or ideal systems.

The subject of scientific research is the structure of the system, the interaction of its elements, various properties, patterns of development.

The results of scientific research are assessed the higher the higher the scientific nature of the conclusions and generalizations made, the more reliable and effective they are. They must create the basis for new scientific developments. One of the most important requirements for scientific research is scientific generalization, which will allow one to establish the dependence and connection between the phenomena and processes being studied and draw scientific conclusions. The deeper the conclusions, the higher the scientific level of the research.

Scientific research is classified on various grounds:

1. According to the source of funding, scientific research is distinguished:

budgetary research - financed from the state budget;

economic contract research - financed by customer organizations under economic contracts;

unfunded research - can be carried out on the initiative of a scientist, under the individual plan of a teacher.

2. In regulatory legal acts on science, scientific research is divided according to its intended purpose into fundamental, applied, and experimental developments (Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Science and State Scientific and Technical Policy” N 127-FZ of August 23, 1996 (latest amendment dated July 21, 2011 N 254-FZ)):

fundamental scientific research - experimental or theoretical activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the basic laws of the structure, functioning and development of man, society, and the natural environment;

applied scientific research - research aimed primarily at applying new knowledge to achieve practical goals and solve specific problems;

experimental development is an activity that is based on knowledge acquired as a result of scientific research or on the basis of practical experience, and is aimed at preserving human life and health, creating new materials, products, processes, devices, services, systems or methods and their further improvement."

3. Based on duration, scientific research can be divided into long-term, short-term and express research.

There are also two levels of research: theoretical and empirical.

The theoretical level of research is characterized by the predominance of logical methods of cognition. Here, the objects under study are mentally analyzed with the help of logical concepts, inferences, laws and other forms of thinking, generalized, their essence, internal connections, and laws of development are comprehended.

Elements of empirical knowledge are facts obtained through observations and experiments and stating the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of objects and phenomena. Stable repeatability and connections between empirical characteristics are expressed using empirical laws, often of a probabilistic nature.

Scientific problem (topic) of scientific research, its formulation and formulation. Scientific direction.

A problem is a question the answer to which is not contained in existing knowledge, i.e.

the problem is “knowledge about ignorance”, when there is no knowledge about some subject area, some phenomena, but at the same time there is an awareness of its absence. To realize a problem means to reveal one’s ignorance, and this is already a kind of knowledge.

Not every problem is scientific. Scientific problems are formulated on the basis of scientific premises and investigated using scientific methods.

Scientific problems are usually divided into two large classes:

fundamental, the main goal of which is to expand scientific knowledge;

applied, focused mainly on the technical and technological application of research results, this also includes problems associated with the improvement and development of means of cognition.

But there are no clear boundaries between fundamental and applied problems. The same problem, studied for a practical or purely cognitive purpose, may have a solution that has both practical and cognitive value. This interpenetration and interrelation of two aspects of science is successfully expressed in the well-known aphorism: “There is nothing more practical than a good theory.”

Statement of a scientific problem (topic) includes a number of stages:

1. Awareness of a problem situation - detection of ignorance about some subject area, some phenomena.

2. Formulation of the problem (topic) - the correct formulation of the topic determines the general strategy of scientific research and, in general terms, the expected result, and the topic must correspond to the profile of the scientific team (organization).

3. Formation of a problematic concept and determination of the relevance of the topic with its subsequent specification by answering the question - why this research needs to be carried out now, and not later, to identify the current value of the topic for the progress of science and technology.

4. Developing the structure of the topic and identifying specific ways, means and methods for scientific research - dividing the topic into subtopics and smaller scientific questions. For each of these components, the approximate area and volume of upcoming research are determined, specific tasks are outlined, the sequence of their solution and the methods that will be used in this case.

5. Determining the scientific novelty of the topic - this means that the topic in such a formulation has never been developed and is not currently being developed, i.e. duplication is excluded. When choosing a topic for scientific research, the novelty must be scientific, i.e. fundamentally new, not engineering. If even a new problem is being developed, but on the basis of already discovered laws, then this is the area of ​​engineering, not scientific development.

6. Determination of theoretical and practical significance is the possibility of using the results of scientific research to solve current problems and tasks in related or interdisciplinary research and practice.

7. Determination of the economic efficiency of the topic - the solutions proposed as a result of scientific research must be more effective than existing solutions.

A problematic situation is, as a rule, the result of a contradiction between newly discovered facts in science and existing theory. A problematic situation usually arises in the following cases:

when new empirical material does not fit into the framework of existing theoretical concepts, that is, when it is discovered that it is impossible to apply an existing theory to a new subject area;

when the development of a theory encounters a lack of experimental data, and this stimulates a targeted experimental search;

when there is a need to create a theory that generalizes a certain range of phenomena studied by science.

The choice, formulation and solution of scientific topics (problems) depend on subjective and objective factors.

Objective factors:

the level of the state of knowledge and theories in a particular field of science;

determination by social needs of the choice of problems and their solutions;

the choice of problems and their solution are also largely determined by the availability of special equipment, methods and research techniques.

Subjective factors:

the interest of the scientist himself in the problem under study;

originality of the scientist's plan;

moral and aesthetic satisfaction experienced by the researcher when choosing a problem and solving it.

Not all scientific problems are eventually solved. First of all, problems that do not correspond to the current level of development of knowledge and currently accepted scientific theories are not solved.

Therefore, there are some general requirements that must be met when posing scientific problems:

1. Any scientific problem must be formulated in relation to specific, real objects or subject areas. In science there cannot be a “subjectless” problem (as well as a “subjectless” hypothesis or theory).

2. A clear understanding of the scientific problem is necessary. The lack of such understanding (or only an intuitive understanding of the problem) interferes with the identification of directions and the development of scientific research programs, the justification and critical analysis of the strategy of scientific research. A poorly formulated problem leads to a waste of time, effort and material resources, to a pile-up of scattered information, etc.

3. A scientific problem should highlight a direction of research in which individual issues can be understood and resolved as its particulars. The researcher must identify, formulate and justify the essential question that unites all others, and focus on solving it.

4. A scientific problem must have the property of solvability. Justification of the solvability of a problem presupposes obtaining such research results that should be considered its solution in a given state of science. A solvable problem (as opposed to pseudo-problems) makes it possible to justify and plan the final result, and not to declare any results as a solution to the problem, allows you to evaluate, select and control cognitive actions and arguments in the very process of obtaining planned results, and not move towards them using “trial and error” techniques.

It should be noted that in science we often have to deal with problems that allow several solutions (such problems, for example, include technical and economic problems, organizational ones, etc.). In such cases, it is necessary to take into account which solution has certain advantages and is therefore more desirable under given conditions.

The choice of a scientific problem is at the same time the choice of a scientific direction of scientific research.

A scientific direction is a field of scientific research devoted to solving any major, fundamental theoretical and experimental problems in a certain branch of science.

Thus, the ability of a scientist to formulate and critically analyze the arguments used to justify the solvability or acceptance of a proposed solution to a problem is an important prerequisite for the progress of scientific knowledge.

The ability to perceive new problems and formulate them is an important condition for scientific creativity. In science there are no special methods searching and formulating scientific problems. For many of them, it is impossible to develop solution algorithms.

Scientific facts and their role in scientific research.

The concept “fact” is used in several meanings:

an objective event, a result related to objective reality (a fact of reality) or to the sphere of consciousness and cognition (a fact of consciousness);

knowledge about any event, phenomenon, the reliability of which has been proven (truth);

a sentence that captures knowledge gained through observations and experiments.

Scientific facts are a necessary condition for scientific research. The power of science lies in its reliance on facts. The task of scientific knowledge is to find the reason for the occurrence of a given fact, to find out its essential meaning and to establish a natural connection between the facts.

Scientific facts are certain fixed results of empirical research (scientific observations, measurements, experiments). Moreover, to record these results, the use of the language of science is required.

A scientific fact appears in the form of direct observation of an object, instrument readings, photographs, experimental reports, tables, diagrams, records, archival documents, verified eyewitness accounts, etc.

The main features of scientific facts: novelty, reliability, accuracy, reproducibility.

The novelty of a scientific fact reflects fundamentally new, hitherto unknown knowledge about some object or phenomenon (this is not necessarily a scientific discovery, but it is new knowledge about something that we did not know).

The reliability of a scientific fact is the objective truth of the knowledge recorded in this fact. It follows from this important condition: a scientific fact should not depend on who and when it was obtained.

The accuracy of a scientific fact is a set of the most significant features of objects, phenomena, events, their quantitative and qualitative characteristics.

Evaluating the facts obtained is an important component of scientific research. The deeper and more specifically the researcher evaluates the role and significance of certain facts, the more effective his cognitive activity will be. Assessing the fundamental features of scientific facts also helps to clarify their magnitude, that is, their intended significance for theory and practice. Unfortunately, this is not always possible.

Scientific facts, intended to serve as the basis for further theoretical research, themselves require for their identification and assessment a certain work of theoretical thinking. As Academician I.P. liked to say. Pavlov: “Without an idea in your head, no scientific fact can be established.”

The obtained scientific facts require a certain theoretical interpretation, and facts that contradict the existing theory (or hypothesis) are of particular interest. In this regard, the discovery of new empirical facts is of great importance for the development of a system of scientific knowledge. In this case, the internal logic of facts “works,” leading to the inevitable rejection of old ideas when they come into obvious conflict with new experimental data.

Accordingly, empirical research leads to the discovery of more and more new facts, and they, in turn, require theoretical explanation. In the process of scientific knowledge, facts become a necessary basis and motivating force for the construction of hypotheses and theories.

An attempt by a researcher (conscious or unconscious) to ignore the logic of facts, and sometimes even to manipulate them, leads to incorrect conclusions that are inconsistent with reality. The results of such “research” are very quickly removed from science.

The interaction between the empirical and theoretical levels of research is that:

the totality of facts forms the practical basis of a theory or hypothesis;

facts can confirm or refute a theory;

a scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas;

empirical research in modern science is predetermined and guided by theory.

Scientific hypothesis, its content, promotion and justification. Requirements for scientific hypotheses.

A hypothesis is a preliminary theoretical assumption about the essence of the objects and phenomena being studied.

A scientific hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption that contains certain arguments that explain the phenomena being studied. At the same time, the peculiarity of these arguments is such that it is not yet possible to fully verify their reliability.

In science, the main goal of putting forward and developing hypotheses is to solve a scientific problem, which sets the direction for the search for hypotheses.

It is generally accepted that the stated hypothesis should not contradict the facts known in science. But in the process of scientific research, there may be cases when a completely new problem situation arises and new scientific hypotheses designed to resolve it do not agree with generally accepted theories and contradict the established view.

During the research process, scientific hypotheses are tested and changed depending on the accumulating new facts.

Sometimes it is difficult to explain why a scientist puts forward exactly such a hypothesis to explain certain facts, because the creation of a hypothesis is largely an intuitive act, which represents the secret of scientific creativity.

A scientific hypothesis must satisfy a number of specific requirements:

1. A hypothesis must explain the essence of that set of new facts on the basis of which and for the sake of which it was created, and the larger the range of facts explained by this hypothesis, the more justified it is considered. And if any fact appears that is inexplicable from the point of view of the hypothesis put forward, then such a situation serves as an incentive for: searching for a new hypothesis;

improving the existing hypothesis;

to detect, through additional checks, the inaccuracy of a new fact that has emerged.

2. The hypothesis must be fundamentally testable - in the process of cognitive activity, sooner or later the real existence of what is assumed in the hypothesis must be proven or refuted. The way to test hypotheses is to obtain from them such consequences (special cases) that can be verified empirically. At the same time, not every hypothesis can be tested at one or another stage of the development of science for the following reasons: the specific ways of such testing are unclear;

mathematical difficulties that prevent one from obtaining quantitative consequences from the hypothesis that allow an unambiguous comparison with experience;

insufficient level of development of experimental technology. In this regard, the concept of a virtually unverifiable hypothesis is introduced, which, however, as science progresses, may eventually become testable.

3. The hypothesis must have sufficient breadth, logical consistency and predictive capabilities - the hypothesis must cover and explain a more or less wide range of phenomena, not contain contradictions to established scientific facts and predict new phenomena.

4. The simplicity of a hypothesis is its logical construction that does not require resorting to any arbitrary assumptions, artificial constructions, etc. when explaining a certain range of phenomena.

5. Most often, a hypothesis is put forward in cases where it is difficult or even impossible to identify the cause of the phenomenon being studied due to its inaccessibility to direct observation.

As part of the formulation of hypotheses, the hypothetico-deductive method is used, which involves the implementation of an algorithm consisting of four links:

1. Detection of certain facts related to some area of ​​reality.

2. Proposition of an initial hypothesis, usually called a working one, which, based on a certain regularity and repeatability of the facts found, constructs their simplest explanation.

3. Establishing facts that “do not fit” into the working hypothesis.

4. Creation of a new, more developed scientific hypothesis, taking into account facts that fall out of the initial explanation, which harmonizes all available empirical data, and sometimes makes it possible to predict the receipt of new ones.

Consequently, from the new hypothesis it is possible to deduce (deduce) all known facts, as well as an indication of still unknown facts (that is, not yet discovered).

So, if a scientific hypothesis harmonizes facts with each other, connects them into a single picture, and even predicts the discovery of still unknown facts, then it will turn into a theory that for a certain historical period can take a dominant position in one or another section of scientific knowledge.

Thus, a scientific hypothesis, which has received complete proof and verified by practice, becomes a theory.

The essence of scientific theory and its role in scientific research.

Theory is logically organized knowledge, a conceptual system of knowledge that adequately and holistically reflects a certain area of ​​reality.