Based on the type of user interface, a distinction is made between text (linear), graphic and speech. OS.
User Interface is a set of techniques for user interaction with an application. The user interface includes the user's communication with the application and the language of communication.
Text OS
Linear operating systems implement a command line interface. The main control device in them is the keyboard. The command is typed on the keyboard and displayed on the display screen. The end of entering a command is pressing the Enter key. To work with operating systems that have a text interface, it is necessary to master the command language of this environment, i.e. a set of commands whose structure is determined by the syntax of that language.
The first real operating systems had a text-based interface. Currently, it is also used on servers and users' computers.
Graphics OS
Such operating systems implement an interface based on the interaction of active and passive graphical on-screen controls. The control devices in this case are the keyboard and mouse. The active control element is the mouse pointer - a graphic object whose movement on the screen is synchronized with the movement of the mouse. Passive controls are graphical application controls (on-screen buttons, icons, radio buttons, check boxes, drop-down lists, menu bars, etc.).
An example of exclusively graphical operating systems is the Windows family of operating systems. The start screen of such operating systems is a system object called the desktop. Desktop is a graphical environment on which objects (files and directories) and controls are displayed.
In graphical operating systems, most operations can be performed by many different ways, for example, through the menu bar, through the toolbar, through the window system, etc. Since operations are performed on an object, it must first be selected (selected).
The basis of the graphical user interface is an organized system of windows and other graphic objects, when creating which developers strive for maximum standardization of all elements and working methods.
Window is a framed rectangular area on the monitor screen in which applications, a document, or a message are displayed. A window is active if there is this moment the user is working. All operations performed in graphical operating systems occur either on the Desktop or in some window.
Speech OS
In the case of the SILK interface (from the English speech - speech, image - image, language - language, knowledge - knowledge) - on the screen, following a speech command, there is a movement from one search image to another.
It is expected that when using the public interface there will be no need to understand the menus. Screen images will clearly indicate the further path of movement from one search image to another along semantic semantic connections.
System released in September 1995 Windows 95 became the first graphical operating system for IBM PC computers.
All the following versions of Windows operating systems (98, NT, ME, 2000, XP) are graphical.
Microsoft operating systems:
- DOS (Disk Operating System). Interface – command line. All commands had to be entered manually, in command line OS.
- Windows 3.1 and 3.11. – the first graphical interface. Although many did not consider this operating system, but only a system that expanded the capabilities of DOS.
All further operating systems have a graphical interface.
- Windows-95.
- Windows-98/NT/ME/2000/XP family.
- Windows Vista is currently in beta testing.
Alternative OS
The word UNIX does not mean one operating system, but an entire family of operating systems. UNIX was created primarily for professionals, and therefore never contained any “trinkets” such as a convenient graphical interface. What was important was something else - compatibility, portability, customizability and, most importantly, stability.
A number of “free” operating systems have branched off from the powerful UNIX tree: Linux, FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.
There are also other alternative operating systems.
Database.
MS Access relational database.
Database - This is a collection of information organized in a certain way on any topic (within subject area).
Examples:
- Library book collection database;
- Database of the institution's personnel;
- Database of legislative acts in the field of criminal law;
- Database of modern songs.
There are databases :
- Factual– contains brief information about the described objects, presented in a strictly defined format;
- Documentary - contains extensive information about different types: text, graphic, sound, multimedia.
Definition :
Database- an organized collection of data intended for long-term storage in external computer memory and permanent use.
To store the database, either one computer or many interconnected computers can be used.
If different parts of one database are stored on many computers interconnected by a network, then such a database is called distributed base data.
Database types :
- The data model is built on the principle of interconnected tables - relational.
- One type of object is the main one, all underlying ones are subordinates - hierarchical.
- Any data type can be a master and a slave at the same time - network.
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Operating system. Graphical User Interface
Practical work No. 1
Target: familiarity with the concept of “operating system”, types of operating systems, their purpose; learning the graphical interface of the Windows 7 operating system
operating system- basic complex computer programs, which provides control of computer hardware, work with the file system, input and output of data using peripheral devices, execution application programs. When you turn on your computer, the operating system loads into RAM before other programs and then ensures their execution.
The most commonly used operating systems for desktop and laptop personal computers are Microsoft Windows and Linux. An operating system is installed on an Apple PC MacOS. OS developed for PDAs Windows Mobile And Palm OS.
The minimum addressable element of the storage medium is cluster, which can include several sectors (the sector size is 512 bytes). The cluster size can range from 512 bytes to 64 KB. Clusters are numbered in linear sequence (on magnetic disks from the first cluster of the zero track to the last cluster of the last track).
The file system organizes clusters into files and directories (a directory is really a file containing a list of files in that directory). The file system will keep track of which clusters are currently in use, which are free, and which are marked as faulty.
Command processor- a special program that requests commands from the user and executes them.
Device Drivers - special programs, which provide control of the operation of devices and coordination of information exchange with other devices, and also allow you to configure some of their parameters. Each type of device has its own driver.
Utilities. The operating system also includes utilities, which allow you to maintain disks (check, compress, defragment, etc.), perform operations with files (archive, etc.), work in computer networks etc.
GUI. To simplify the user's work, modern operating systems include software modules that create a graphical user interface. In operating systems with a graphical interface, the user can enter commands using dialog boxes and controls: buttons, text fields, lists, radio buttons, check boxes, counters, sliders, etc.
Aero interface
The Windows 7 operating system uses the Aero interface. The word Aero itself is an abbreviation of the English words: Authentic, Energetic, Reflective, Open (genuine, energetic, reflective and open). The Aero interface includes the following set of functions:
Aero Glass- Use of a frosted glass effect in relation to the headers and various panels of open windows. When using this effect, a blurred outline of the desktop wallpaper or a picture of the next open window may appear behind the window of a running application.
Active thumbnails— miniature images of open windows, with the help of which convenient and fast navigation between open windows is possible. Active thumbnails can be shown when working on the taskbar or when switching between windows using the keyboard.
Aero Snap— when you bring the window to the edge of the monitor’s working area, the window is automatically aligned. If the window is brought to the top edge, it expands to fill the entire screen. If you move the window to the right or left edge, it will take up exactly half the screen.
Aero Shake- a function with which you can minimize all inactive applications with a mouse movement. To use it, you need to grab the window title and shake it a little. If you do this operation again, the application windows will return to their original position (Win+Home)
Aero Peek– view thumbnails of open windows when you hover over the taskbar area, switch between windows with a simple mouse click, quickly minimize all windows and see the contents of the desktop. To do this, just move the cursor to the far right edge of the taskbar ( WIN+Space).
Evaluating computer performance:
Press the keyboard shortcut "Win+Break", after which a window will appear on the screen "View basic information about your computer."
Basic Performance Index- This is an indicator of the power of the current computer configuration. The maximum Base Performance Index your computer can achieve is 7.9, and the minimum is 1. To use all of Aero's effects, your computer's Base Performance Index must be at least 3.
Selecting one of the Aero themes.
To do this, right-click on the desktop and select "Personalization", then click on one of the topics in the " section Aero Themes".
The evolution of graphical interfaces of operating systems. From Xerox Alto to Windows
If the performance index is higher than 3, the effects can be observed.
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ABSTRACT
By discipline
Information Technology
Topic: “Operating systems”
Performed by an OM&VT student
Groups No. 2291/52
Khvatov D.E.
Introduction
A modern operating system is a complex complex software, providing the user not only with standardized input/output of information and program management, but also simplifying work with the computer.
The software interface of operating systems allows you to reduce the size of a specific program and simplify its work with all components of the computer system.
It is known that operating systems acquired their modern appearance during the development of the third generation of computers, that is, from the mid-60s to 1980. At this time, a significant increase in processor efficiency was achieved through the implementation of multitasking.
The Windows operating system is the most common operating system, and for most users it is the most suitable due to its simplicity, good interface, acceptable performance and a huge number of application programs for it.
Windows systems have come a difficult path from primitive graphical shells to completely modern operating systems. Microsoft began developing an interface manager (Interface Manager, later Microsoft Windows) in September 1981. Although the first prototypes were based on the so-called Multiplan and Word-like menus, in 1982 the interface elements were successfully changed to pull-down menus and dialog boxes.
The purpose of this work is to briefly review the history of the development of Microsoft Windows operating systems.
A Brief History of the Development of Windows Operating Systems
Currently, the most widely used graphical operating systems are the Windows family of Microsoft Corporation. In 2005, the Windows family celebrated its twentieth anniversary.
They are constantly being improved, so each new version has additional features.
The first version of this operating system was Windows 1.0 was released in November 1985. Windows 1.0 “could” do very little and was more of a graphical shell for MS-DOS, but this system allowed the user to run several programs at the same time. The main inconvenience when working with Windows 1.0 was that open windows could not overlap each other (to increase the size of one window, you had to reduce the size of the one next to it).
In addition, too few programs were written for Windows 1.0, so the system was not widely used.
Windows 3.1(1992), Windows for Workgroups 3.11(1993) are graphic images that were popular in the past operating shells, running the MS DOS operating system and using the built-in functions and procedures of this OS at the lower level. These are object-oriented applications based on a hierarchically organized window system.
Windows NT(1993) is a multi-user and scalable network operating system for personal computers that supports a client-server architecture and includes its own security system.
It can interact with various operating systems from both Microsoft and other companies (for example, MacOS or UNIX) installed on single-processor and multiprocessor computers built on the basis of CISC or RISC technologies.
Windows 95 is a multitasking and multi-threaded 32-bit operating system with a graphical interface. The system fully supports 16-bit applications created for MS DOS. This is an integrated multimedia environment for exchanging text, graphics, audio and other information.
Windows 98 was a logical development of Windows 95 towards greater computer performance without adding new hardware to it. The system includes a number of programs, the combined use of which increases computer performance and allows more efficient use of Internet web resources through the use of new multimedia capability operating systems.
Windows 2000 is a next-generation network operating system equipped with advanced multi-processing capabilities and effective information security.
The implemented function of working with files in offline mode allows you to select network files into folders for subsequent work with them, without connecting to the network, which provides additional opportunities for mobile users.
Windows ME (Millennium Edition) is an operating system that has a number of additional features and advantages compared to the previous version of Windows 98. The system has expanded multimedia capabilities and improved means of accessing the Internet. The OS also supports the latest types of hardware and has a significantly improved help system.
Windows XP(2001) was a step by Microsoft Corporation towards the integration of the Windows ME user OS and Windows 2000 OS networks. As a result of such integration of their strengths, one of the best operating systems was obtained, which acquired a new user interface that significantly simplifies the use of a personal computer for for various purposes, including for managing local networks.
Two different versions of this OS have been developed: for home users (Windows XP Home Edition) and corporate users (Windows XP Professional).
Windows Vista(2007) is the latest operating system (has kernel version 6.0). Unlike previous versions, Vista is supplied on DVD media due to its increased complexity and new “sophisticated” interface (Aero). In addition, each disc contains all five of its modifications: Home Basic, Home Premium, Enterprise and Ultimat.
In the next chapter we will look at each operating system in more detail.
Any device, mechanical or electronic, whose tasks include direct interaction with the user, in addition to its internal filling, must have something thanks to which this very interaction could be carried out. The name of this intermediary is known to everyone today. This is the interface. It can be analog, but usually the interface is understood as a graphical shell or otherwise GUI
operating systems and software.
Most interfaces of today's popular operating systems are characterized by an intuitive graphic design using visual effects, but this was not always the case. From the point of view of a modern user, the first GUI were quite primitive, although, to their credit, this did not always mean a lack of quality for those times usability.
A little background
Traditionally year of birth GUI it is generally accepted 1973 , it was then that the first personal computer in the full sense of the word was born, which used a graphical interface, but it would be unfair not to mention its earlier predecessors. IN 1962 year scientist Ivan Sutherland a program was created that can be considered the first prototype of graphic editors.
It was called and allowed you to draw figures on the screen with a light pen. Six years later, scientists at the Stanford Institute presented the first graphical interface computer system oN-Line System, which already then contained the concept of modern windows, a mouse and hypertext links. But oN-Line System was rather a demonstration of the technical capabilities of that time, while remaining very primitive.
Xerox - the first true GUI
It is more correct to consider the ancestor of all currently existing graphical interfaces GUI , developed as part of the project - the first personal computer created in 1973 year. Shell was very simple, but even then it had menus, buttons and primitive windows. It also included a mouse cursor with its inherent functions of selecting, copying and pasting.
Further more. IN 1981 year a new system appears called, based on the same , but with more advanced functionality and graphical interface. You might be surprised, but the desktop not much different from current desktops, unless, of course, you take into account the visual effects.
It is based on the same principle of using shortcuts to launch files and navigate through directories in the file system.
Apple - first steps, observed in Xerox Lab
It must be said that it was not the only operating system at that time. At first 80 's companies presented their developments to the world Apple And Microsoft . Understanding all the meaning GUI , but not having enough time to create original shells for their systems, the developers of both companies borrowed ideas Xerox Lab, which subsequently even led to a conflict between Steve Jobs And Bill Gates. Jobs accused Gates of plagiarism for allegedly copying the interface from Macintosh.
Of course, Steve was wrong, because both he himself and Gates, who he accused, took the concept GUI at Xerox Lab, it just so happened that Jobs was the first, and if you compare the interfaces , as well as related Macintosh, then you can see a clear similarity with . If anything new has been added by the company, it’s a text menu at the top of the desktop, the Recycle Bin and a number of shortcuts, whose appearance, according to "apple" designers, was more consistent with the purpose of the programs and functions launched through them.
DOS. Norton Commander as an attempt to create an original GUI
Borrowing ideas Xerox Lab, however, does not mean that no attempts were made to create original interfaces for operating systems. IN 1986 year programmer John Socha was created - file manager For MS-DOS, which previously had virtually no graphic design. The role of windows in it was played by panels dividing the screen vertically and containing lists of folders and files. At the top and bottom of the manager there were text menus that allowed you to perform certain operations.
However, GUI in the full sense of the word didn't show up. Like the one released in 1988 year its analogue, it refers to pseudo-graphical interfaces that imitate graphics while remaining text-based.
However, both of these applications made working with data much easier by eliminating the need for users to enter DOS -commands than for a long time and determined the popularity of these programs.
After leaving the development team, 1982 year Steve Jobs headed his own project Macintosh. The system developed for Macs was called MacOS. Outwardly, it was similar to the Apple Lisa, but it also had unique features that were unique to it, and they concerned both the appearance of the interface elements and the user’s interaction with the shell. Like was based on the window principle, it used menus, icons and dialogs.
The shell made it possible to quickly rename files and folders, select them, copy them by dragging them to a destination, and close all windows at the same time, although closing windows did not always mean that the application was terminated; programs had to be closed correctly - through the main menu of the system. When closing edited but not saved files, a dialog box appeared asking for confirmation to save the changes or cancel them.
Mac OS 7.5.5
During the seven years of its existence MacOS went through many changes, but almost all of them were minor and only in the seventh version did innovations appear that were worth mentioning. Perhaps the most important of them is color support, since before this the system interface was almost monochrome. Now the user could change the color of folder icons and some other elements, making them blue, yellow or red.
Attended color scheme Mac OS 7.5.5 and other shades. At the same time it becomes colored "apple" logo on the left side of the main menu. Other changes include displaying module icons during system boot, expanding menu functionality, adding pop-up tips when hovering over options available in the menu, and implementing access to applications from a single control panel.
Mac OS 8.1
Work on the use of color in the graphical interface was actively continued in the eighth version of the system. System icons in Mac OS 8.1 were colored by default, and in the most OS a new application has appeared Appearance Manager, which allows you to control color schemes. acquired a set of background images; in addition, the user could set arbitrary pictures as backgrounds.
In the same edition, the famous platinum-gray theme appears for the first time, which later became the hallmark of all subsequent versions. MacOS. Another interesting change was the application of isometrics to the icons, making them look like three-dimensional objects without actually being one. The settings for displaying the contents of the file system have been improved - files can now be viewed in the form of lists and icons, the size of which can also be changed.
Mac OS 9.2.2
Version 9.2.2 the story ends MacOS based on the original operating system Macintosh and it seemed that it should have more innovations than previous versions. There are really a lot of changes in the ninth version, but they affected most of the functionality, while the interface changed slightly.
One of the most significant modifications that affected the graphical shell was integrated support for several accounts. When the system started, a profile selection window appeared on the screen, and each user could install their own themes, and third-party graphics packages were also supported. This version also improved the sound control panel and added the ability to set a voice password.
After leaving Apple, V 1985 year Steve Jobs founded his own company NeXT Computers, whose developers created OS NeXTSTEP . The basis of the new system was the kernel Mach, and graphic design ideas were borrowed from MacOS and earlier .
Like MacOS, originally NeXTSTEP had a simplified monochrome interface based on the window principle using menus, icons and dialog boxes. Full color support appeared only in the version 3.3 , which became the last. From later versions MacOS system featured a cleaner and more laconic design.
Microsoft Windows 1.0
We did not sit idly by and Microsoft. IN 1985 year the company presents its graphical shell for MS-DOS with a telling name Windows. The shell partially supported color graphics, it had 32×32-pixel icons, simple menus and dialogs. There was no fixed area in which icons of running applications would be displayed; they could be located anywhere on the screen, overlapping with open windows.
The windows themselves in the first version were quite primitive. They could be dragged with the mouse, their size could be changed, but at the same time they themselves could not overlap each other. It was also impossible to fold them. Interface Windows 1.0 made it easier to work with the system and files, eliminating the need for the user to enter commands in the console, but at the same time it lacked convenience. So in terms of usability the first Windows version significantly inferior to systems from Apple.
Microsoft Windows 3.11
Versions Windows 1.0 , 2.0 And 3.0 were not operating systems in the sense of the word in which it is commonly understood today. They were more like graphical shells MS-DOS, the first signs that set Windows apart OS, appeared only with the release of versions 3.1 And 3.11 , but they relate not so much to GUI , how much to functionality. In terms of graphic design, there were not so many significant changes.
IN Windows 3.11 There is already full support for colors, windows can overlap each other, they can be minimized and expanded. The graphics of individual elements are slightly improved (volumetric buttons and scroll bars) , proportional fonts are used, the appearance of programs File Manager And Program Manager implemented in the style of the shell itself. The user can change the colors of interface elements at his own discretion.
A true revolution in design Windows happened in 1995 year, it was then that the now familiar button appears in the system Start , Conductor , Task bar And desktop with icons , which at the same time was a separate folder. In the same version, display of disks in a folder was implemented "My computer" and a way to manage files from the right-click menu. An important innovation was the transition to 32 -bit architecture.
The history is also interesting Windows 95 and the role she played in the collapse of the project OS/2- operating system of a joint brainchild Microsoft And IBM. At the time of release Windows 3.0 disagreements arose between the companies. Microsoft sought to promote Windows, A IBM prioritized development OS/2. As a result, an agreement was concluded between the companies, according to which IBM should have been studying OS/2 2.0 And Windows 3.0, A Microsoft - OS/2 3.0.
However, the head Microsoft decided to do it his own way, declaring OS/2 2.0 outdated and newer OS/2 3.0 renamed to Windows NT. At the same time, Microsoft released Windows 3.1 and then an update for the version 3.1 under the code name Chicago , which forms the basis for the future Windows 95. After this path IBM And Microsoft finally separated. For a while IBM I was still developing OS/2, but the output is more competitive Windows 95 finally finished her off, and IBM was forced to cancel the project.
Since we touched on the topic of conflict between IBM And Microsoft, it would be unfair to ignore OS/2, the fruit of a once fruitful collaboration between both companies. After a quarrel and final break with Microsoft, developers IBM continued work on OS/2. In the version released in 1996 OS/2 Warp 4 Significant improvements have been made to the external design of the desktop and the graphical shell as a whole. There were icons on the desktop that provided access to various system settings, but they could also play the role of directories into which the user could place files and folders, was present Windows-similar taskbar and a single access menu to all programs.
OS/2 Warp 4 has a lot in common with Windows, but there are also very significant differences in it. Default drag and drop to OS/2 Warp 4 was carried out not with the left, but with the right mouse button, Basket was not used for temporary storage deleted files, but for their immediate destruction. Dialog boxes this system had no buttons "Save" or "OK", data was saved automatically when the window was closed , unless the user canceled the action. Another interesting feature of the system was the ability to view the tree structure of the disk in windows.
DeskMate 3.05 (desktop version 3.69)
Exit Windows V 1985 year has not weakened interest in MS DOS, which continued to be popular, as well as the graphical shells created for it, including the one released by the company Tandy Wednesday DeskMate deserves special attention. DeskMate is not just a graphical add-on, it is a full-fledged operating environment that includes its own set of software.
Unlike , V DeskMate 3.05 there were full-fledged menus, buttons and some kind of windows that could be placed on a primitive desktop. The environment included a file manager with limited tree structure support, a built-in textbook, calendar, organizer, DBMS, text and vector graphic editors. Another distinguishing feature DeskMate 3.05 was support for primary colors.
AmigaOS- an operating system specially created for computers of the family Amiga V 1985 year. The interface of the first versions was something between a shell and pseudographic shells DOS, but already in windows appeared overlapping each other, colored icons for quick access to files, applications and disk drives.
Taken as a whole, has a lot in common with MacOS. The menu at the top of the screen shows options depending on which application is currently active, the windows are equipped with simple controls, and there are scroll bars. Distinctive feature AmigaOS is a function that allows you to work with multiple screens, and each screen could have its own resolution and color depth.
Small, fast and somewhat unusual Unix -like operating system developed for the platform Raspberry Pi . Externally it was distinguished by a minimalistic user interface, support for all resolutions available at that time for computers Acorn, drag-and-drop, it had windows, a kind of taskbar at the bottom of the desktop, colored icons and pseudo-3D decorative controls.
Its own features were single-user multitasking, modularity and a binary application interface, all files in it were volumes, applications were also implemented in the form of directories with exclamation point. Despite its minimalism, from the point of view of users accustomed to the environment Windows or LXDE, Desktop could seem inconvenient, since many of the control methods in it had significant differences.
BeOS 5.0PE
Quite a powerful operating system created by the company Be Inc . and multimedia-oriented. Originally developed for computers BeBox, but then switched to Macintosh, and then on PC. Story BeOS closely related to Apple, since the founder Be Inc. was none other than Jean-Louis Gassier- former executive director Apple. In addition to multithreading and support for multiprocessor architectures, the main feature BeOS 5.0PE was its interface, which had the features Windows and systems from Apple.
The system shell was distinguished by its well-thought-out usability and simplicity combined with elegance. As expected, it had windows, menus, and "team" a taskbar that resembles a similar shell element Windows, full-color icons and folders that could be placed on a minimalist-style desktop. Distinctive feature BeOS 5.0PE was the structure of the windows - instead of the traditional title bar, they used tabs located on top of the window.
Little known Canadian Unix -like system belonging to the type of so-called real-time operating systems. Being universal, it was distinguished by its high speed of operation and low demands on hardware resources. The graphical shell of the system is called Photon, but her desktop has a lot in common with a desktop Windows XP. At the bottom of the screen there is a horizontal control panel with something like a button Start and a vertical control panel on the right, changing background images is supported.
Window , in which applications are launched, have a similar structure to windows Windows. They can be collapsed and expanded, scaled, cascaded, etc. The conductor, as it is commonly understood in Windows V no, it is replaced by a file manager QNX Photon, similar in functionality to Windows Explorer. Thanks to its lightness, convenience and simplicity at one time competed and in some ways was even ahead Windows, however applications under QNX Little was written, which determined her future fate. Today QNX used mainly on specialized devices.
Red Hat 8.0 with GNOME 2.06 interface
Systems Linux, especially the early ones, were usually perceived as aimed at computer geeks, but it cannot be said that the developers Unix -like systems have done nothing to make their products as convenient as Windows. An example of this would be Red Hat 8.0- based on Linux Fedora OC with shell GNOME 2.06, by the way, was originally developed specifically for Red Hat and only then spread to other distributions Linux.
Red Hat 8.0 has a simple and clean desktop with the ability to place icons and other objects on it, Windows-like taskbar, windows, the controls of which were not located on the left, as is typical for many Linux-systems, and in the upper right corner, there is in Red Hat 8.0 even its own button and menu Start. The menus themselves are organized according to the cascade principle, which in terms of design makes this system even more similar to Windows.
Instead of an afterword
For more than half a century of its existence computer done huge way, having developed into complex and powerful systems that have found application in almost all modern industries. Comparing the first electronic computers with modern supercomputers is like comparing hot air balloon with a spaceship. But what seems even more surprising is that their interfaces have not undergone fundamental changes, except for the transition to graphical shells themselves.
If you look closely at the interfaces of modern operating systems, you will notice obvious similarities with the graphical shells of the founders of all GUI And . What is this, a lack of imagination among designers or some kind of necessity dictated by the physiology of users? More likely the second than the first. Can this be considered as some kind of disadvantage? Of course not. Yes, the first graphical interfaces were primitive, but at the same time they also had that captivating simplicity that the shells of modern programs and operating systems overloaded with visual effects sometimes lack.
For convenience, I decided to translate it into great and mighty. I didn’t translate it verbatim, but I didn’t distort the meaning. It is only worth noting that the original shines with enthusiastic exclamations towards Windows and MacOS and gloomily spits in the direction of Gnome and KDE. Let's begin.
A graphical interface (GUI, in short) allows the user to interact with computer hardware in the most user-friendly way. Over the years, GUIs have been developed for a variety of operating systems, such as OS/2, Macintosh, Windows, Amiga, Linux, Symbian OS, etc.
We will look at the evolution of the appearance of the interfaces of major operating systems since the 80s.
I would like to draw your attention to the fact that this article shows significant advances only in the appearance of the OS (and not the OS themselves) and it does not cover all the interfaces and operating systems that currently exist.
The first graphical interface was developed at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in the 70s. This event ushered in an entire era of innovation in computer graphics.
The first computer to use the new user interface was the Xerox Alto, developed in 1973. This computer never went on sale and was intended primarily for university research.
Xerox 8010 Star (1981)
It was the first system to be marketed as fully integrated, with applications and a graphical interface. It was known as "The Xerox Star", later named "ViewPoint" and even later renamed "GlobalView".
The system is also known as Lisa OS, and OS in this case was short for Office System. It was developed by Apple with the goal of using a workstation for working with documents.
Unfortunately, the system failed and was suppressed by the cheaper Apple's Macintosh OS.
There were updates to Lisa OS, Lisa OS 2 in 1983 and Lisa OS 7/7 3.1 in 1984, these updated the system itself, but not the graphical interface.
Visi On is the first system with a graphical interface developed for the IBM PC. The system was intended for large corporations and had a high cost. The graphical interface involved the use of a mouse, the system had a built-in installer, a help system and did not use icons.
System 1.0 is the first GUI system designed for Apple's Macintosh. The GUI had a number of features modern system and was based on windows with icons. Windows could be moved with the mouse, and files and folders could be copied by dragging them to their destination.
At the time of its release, the Amiga was ahead of its time. The GUI included things like color graphics (four colors: black, white, blue, orange), some sort of multitasking, stereo sound, and status icons (selected or unselected).
That year, Microsoft caught up with its competitors in their GUI craze and released Windows 1.0, the first operating system based entirely on a graphical interface (despite the fact that no one had previously taken the risk to combine one with the other). A special feature of the system were icons measuring 32x32 pixels and color graphics. The most interesting feature (which was later abandoned) was the animated analog clock icon.
GEM (Graphical Environment Manager) is a GUI created by Digital Research, Inc. (DRI). It was originally created to work with the CP/M operating system on Intel 8088 and Motorola 68000 microprocessors, and was later redesigned to run under DOS. Many people remember GEM as the GUI for Atari ST computers, but it was also used on a number of Amstrad's IBM compatible computers, and was the basis for Ventura Publisher and several other DOS programs. This graphical interface was ported to other platforms, but did not achieve popularity there.
IRIX 3 (1986, first released 1984)
The 64-bit operating system IRIX was created for UNIX. Interesting feature its interface included support for vector icons. And this feature was implemented in the interface long before the advent of Mac OS X.
The GEOS operating system (Graphic Environment Operating System) was developed by Berkeley Softworks (later GeoWorks). Originally designed for Commodore 64 computers and included graphics word processor geoWrite and geoPaint drawing program.
Window management has been greatly improved in this version. Windows could be overlaid on top of each other, they could be resized, expanded to full screen, and minimized.
OS/2 was originally developed by IBM and Microsoft, but the two companies went their separate ways in 1991, with Microsoft using the technology to create its own Windows GUI and IBM continuing development of OS/2. The graphical interface used in OS/2 is called "Presentation Manager". This version of the GUI only supported monochrome, fixed icons.
Steve Jobs entered the market with the idea of creating the ultimate research computer for universities and research laboratories. The idea was later announced as a venture called NeXT Computer Inc.
The first NeXT computer was released in 1988, but a major breakthrough was made in 1989 with the release of NeXTSTEP 1.0 GUI, which was later spun off into OPENSTEP.
The interface icons were larger (48x48) and contained more colors. Initially, the user interface was monochrome, but version 1.0 began to support color monitors. The screenshot below will give you an idea of what the updated GUI looked like.
The next small GUI update showed minor improvements, but in many ways. Icons looked prettier and windows were smoother.
With this version, Microsoft realized the true capabilities of graphical interfaces and began to significantly improve them.
The operating system itself supported standard and advanced mode, which allowed it to use more than 640 KB of memory and hard disk space, which in turn allowed the use of higher screen resolution and better graphics such as SVGA 800x600 and 1024x768.
Microsoft also hired Susan Kare to design icons for Windows 3.0 and give the overall style to the entire graphical interface.
Amiga Workbench 2.04 (1991)
Many improvements have been made to this version of the GUI. The color scheme has been changed and a 3D view has been introduced. The desktop could be divided vertically in screens with different resolutions and color renditions, which from modern perspectives seems somewhat wild. The default screen resolution was 640x256, but the hardware supported higher resolutions.
Mac OS version 7.0 is the first GUI in the Mac OS family to support colors. Subtle shades of grey, blue and yellow have been added to the icons.
This version of Windows included pre-installed TrueType fonts. This made Windows a functional publishing platform for the first time.
Before this, there was exactly one opportunity to achieve such functionality from Windows 3.0, namely to use the Adobe font system - Adobe Type Manager (ATM). Additionally, this version featured the Hotdog Stand color scheme, with vibrant shades of red, yellow, and black. This color scheme helped people with varying degrees of color blindness more easily perceive text and graphics on the screen.
The first GUI that has received international recognition, practicality and usability testing. The entire GUI was developed using an object-oriented approach. Each file and folder were objects that could be associated with other files, folders and applications. The GUI also supported drag-and-drop and templates.
Since version 3.x, the user interface has been completely redesigned. The first version of Windows to add a small close button to every window. The design team added states (active, inactive, highlighted, selected, etc.) of icons and other graphic elements. The famous button appeared for the first time Start. This was a huge step forward for Microsoft, both in terms of the operating system itself and in terms of unifying the GUI.
OS/2 Warp 4 (1996)
IBM released OS/2 Warp 4 with significant external workspace changes. Icons were placed on the desktop, and other files and folders could be created there. A shredder appeared, similar to the Windows or Mac OS recycle bin, with the difference that files were deleted directly, without the possibility of recovery.
By default, this version of the user interface had 256-color icons. Mac OS 8 was one of the first OSes to use isometric icons, also called pseudo 3D icons. The platinum gray theme used here became a trademark for future versions of GUIs.
The icon style in the new version of the OS was almost the same as in Windows 95, but in general the GUI could use more than 256 colors for display. Windows Explorer has changed almost completely and the "Active Desktop" has appeared for the first time.
This is how the KDE development team described the project ahead of the release of version 1.0: “KDE is a web-friendly, modern desktop environment for Unix workstations. KDE aims to fill the void of user-friendly interfaces for Unix workstations, such as the MacOS or Window95/NT desktop environments. A completely free and open computing platform, accessible to everyone, including modification of the source code.”
The BeOS operating system was developed for personal computers. Originally written by Be In in 1991 to run on BeBox hardware. Later development was continued for compatibility with newer technologies and hardware, namely, symmetric multiprocessing was introduced using modular I/O bandwidth, pervasive multithreading, preferential multitasking and its own 64-bit journaling file system, known as BFS. The BeOS graphical interface was developed according to the principles of cleanliness, clarity, and quiet appearance.
The GNOME desktop was developed primarily for Red Hat Linux, and was later made for other Linux distributions.
Mac OS X (2001)
Previously, in 2000, Apple announced a new Aqua interface and in 2001 the company released it with its new operating system Mac OS X. The regular 32x32 and 48x48 pixel icons were changed to larger, 128x128 pixel, anti-aliased and translucent icons. After the release of this GUI, a lot of criticism followed. Apparently, users were not fully ready for such big changes, but very soon they got used to the new style and today this interface is the basis of all Mac OS X operating systems
Microsoft's tendency is to completely change the GUI with each new operating system, and Windows XP was no exception. The interface itself supported changing themes; users could change the appearance of the system themselves. The default icons were 48x48 in size and supported millions of colors.
"Sneakers" have been significantly improved since version 1.0. All graphics and icons were polished and all user wishes were taken into account.
Windows Vista (2007)
This is Microsoft's answer to the interface competition. There is a lot of 3D and animation included in the GUI. Since Windows 98, Microsoft has always tried to improve the desktop experience. With Windows Vista, widgets and a somewhat improved active desktop replacement were introduced.
In the sixth generation of Mac OS X, Apple once again improved the graphical interface. The GUI was still based on Aqua, with attractive scroll bars and platinum gray and blue colors. New GUI features include more pseudo-3D objects, a three-dimensional panel view, and much more animation and interactivity.
The GNOME developers put a lot of effort into creating themes and other graphics for version 2.24, as the goal is to "make your computer look good." A competition was held to select the most successful desktop backgrounds provided by supporters for version 2.24.
The fourth version of the K Desktop Environment brings a large number of new GUI improvements, such as animation, anti-aliasing, smart window management and support for desktop widgets. The size of icons is easier to adjust, and almost all appearance elements have become easier to configure. A few of the most noteworthy changes include new icons, themes, and sounds courtesy of the Oxygen Project. The icons are more photorealistic. This is definitely the biggest improvement over previous versions KDE. KDE can now be run on Windows and Mac OS X platforms.
This is an interesting article for general development.
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Let us recall that the operating system always acts as an interface between the computer hardware and the user with his tasks. Operating system interfaces hereinafter should be understood as special system and application programming interfaces (APIs) designed to perform the tasks listed below.
Process management, which includes the following set of basic functions:
■ starting, pausing and canceling a task;
■ setting or changing the priority of a task;
■ interaction of tasks with each other (signal mechanisms, semaphore
elements, queues, conveyors, mailboxes);
■ call of remote procedures (Remote Procedure Call, RPC).
- Memory management:
■ request to allocate a memory block;
■ freeing up memory;
■ changing the parameters of a memory block (for example, the memory may be blocked
signed by the process or made available to the public);
■ mapping files to memory (not available on all systems).
Operating system interfaces_______________________________________________ 297
I/O Control:
■ request to manage virtual devices (remember that management
I/O management is a privileged function of the operating system itself.
rational system, and none of the user tasks should have
ability to directly control devices);
■ file operations (requests to the file management system to create,
changing and deleting data organized in files).
Here we have listed the main sets of functions that are performed by the operating system in response to appropriate requests from tasks. As for the user interface with the operating system, it is implemented using special software modules that accept its commands in the appropriate language (possibly using a graphical interface) and translate them into regular calls in accordance with the main interface of the system. These modules are usually called a command interpreter. For example, the functions of such an interpreter in MS DOS are performed by the COMMAND.COM module. Having received a command from the user, such a module, after lexical and syntactic analysis, either performs the action itself, or, what happens more often, accesses other operating system modules using the API mechanism. It should be noted that in recent years, graphical interfaces(Graphical User Interface, GUI), in which appropriate manipulators such as a mouse or track-ball are involved." Pointing the cursor at an object and clicking or double click on the corresponding mouse button leads to some action - launching a program associated with an object, selecting and/or activating a menu, etc. We can say that such an interface subsystem translates user “commands” into calls to the operating system.
Let us also clarify that GUI control is a special case of the I/O control task and does not belong to the functions of the operating system kernel, although in some cases operating system developers classify GUI functions as the main system API.
It should be noted that there are two main approaches to task management. Thus, in some systems, the spawned task inherits all the resources of the parent task, while in other systems there are equal relationships, and when a new process is spawned, resources for it are requested from the operating system.
In accordance with the available API interface, calls to the operating system can be made either by calling a subroutine and passing it required parameters, and through the software interrupt mechanism. Choosing a call implementation method API functions must be determined by the platform architecture.
1 A trackball is a special ball, which in laptop computers (NoteBooks) is placed next to the keyboard, scrolled with your fingers and used to move the mouse pointer. Nowadays, it is much more common to use a touch-sensitive device (touchpad). Using such a device, the user controls the mouse pointer by moving his finger along a special surface.
298______________________________ Chapter 9. Operating systems architecture
For example, in the MS DOS operating system, which was developed for
single-tasking mode (since the i80x86 processor did not support multipro
programming), a software interrupt mechanism was used. Wherein
The core set of API functions was accessible through the int 21 h handler entry point.
In more complex systems there is not one entry point, but many - depending on the number of API functions. Thus, most operating systems use the method of calling subroutines. In this case, the call is first passed to an API module, such as the Run Time Library (RTL), which forwards it to the appropriate software interrupt handlers included in the operating system. The use of the interrupt mechanism is mainly due to the fact that when This puts the processor into supervisor mode.
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