An information system is an interconnected set of tools, methods and personnel used for storing, processing and issuing information in order to achieve a set goal.
The modern understanding of an information system assumes the use of a personal computer as the main technical means of information processing. In large organizations, along with personal computer The technical base of the information system may include a mainframe or supercomputer. In addition, the technical implementation of an information system in itself will not mean anything if the role of the person for whom the information produced is intended and without whom its receipt and presentation is impossible is not taken into account.
It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical basis and tool for information systems. An information system is unthinkable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.
The development of information systems can be considered:
1. From the standpoint of the development of technology itself, the emergence of a new technical base that generates new information needs.
2. From the point of view of improving the automated information systems (AIS) themselves.
The first aspect involves two stages: one - before the advent of computers, associated with the names of the inventors of the first computing devices, such as B. Pascal, P.L. Chebyshev, Ch. Babbage and others; the second - with the development of computers.
The first generation of computers (1950s) was built on the basis of vacuum tubes and was represented by the following models: ENIAC, MESM, BESM-1, M-20, Ural-1, Minsk-1. All of these machines were large, consumed large amounts of electricity, had low speed, small memory, and low reliability. They were not used in economic calculations.
The second generation of computers (1960s) was based on semiconductors and transistors: BESM-6, Ural-14, Minsk-32. The use of transistor elements as an element base made it possible to reduce electricity consumption and reduce the size individual elements The computer and the entire machine, the memory capacity increased, the first displays appeared, etc. These computers were already used to solve economic problems.
The third generation of computers (1970s) was on small integrated circuits. Its representatives are IBM 360 (USA), a number of computers unified system(ES COMPUTER), machines of the small family from SM I to SM IV. With the help of integrated circuits, it was possible to reduce the size of computers, increase their reliability and performance.
The fourth generation of computers (1980s) was based on large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) and was represented by the IBM 370 (USA), EC-1045, EC-1065, etc. They were a number of software-compatible machines on a single element base, a single design and technical basis, with a single structure, a single software system, a single unified set universal devices. Personal computers (PCs) have become widespread, and they began to appear in 1976 in the USA (An Apple). They did not require special premises, installation of programming systems, and used languages high level and communicated with the user interactively.
Currently, during the period of informatization, computers are being built based on ultra-large-scale integrated circuits (VLSI). They have enormous computing power and are relatively low cost. They can be represented not as one machine, but as a computing system connecting the core of the system, which is presented in the form of a supercomputer, and a PC on the periphery.
This allows you to significantly reduce the cost of human labor and effectively use machine labor. The main trend in the development of AIS is the constant desire for improvement. This is achieved through the improvement of technical and software, which gives rise to new information needs and leads to the improvement of information systems.
Let us characterize the generations of information systems.
The first generation of AIS (1960-1970) was built on the basis of computer centers according to the principle of “one enterprise - one processing center.”
The second generation of AIS (1970-1980) is characterized by a transition to IS decentralization. Information technologies penetrate into departments and services of an enterprise. Packages and decentralized databases appeared, and two- and three-level models for organizing data processing systems began to be introduced.
The third generation of AIS (1980-early 1990): characterized by a massive transition to distributed network processing based on personal computers with the consolidation of disparate workstations into a single IS.
The fourth generation of AIS is characterized by a combination of centralized processing at the upper level with distributed processing at the lower level. There is a trend towards a return in large and medium-sized enterprises to the use of powerful computers in IS as the central node of the system and cheap network terminals (workstations).
Modern information systems at enterprises are created on the basis of local and distributed computer networks, new technologies for making management decisions, and new solution methods professional tasks end users, etc.
The history of the development of information systems and the purposes of their use at different periods is as follows (Table 1).
Table 1 – History of the development of information systems and the purposes of their use at different periods
|
Period of time |
Information Use Concept |
Type of information systems |
Purpose of use |
|
1950 - 1960 |
Paper flow of settlement documents |
Information systems for processing settlement documents on electromechanical accounting machines |
Increasing the speed of document processing Simplifying invoice processing and payroll processing |
|
1960 - 1970 |
Basic assistance in preparing reports |
Management information systems for production information |
Speeding up the reporting process |
|
1970 - 1980 |
Management control of sales (sales) |
Decision support systems Systems for senior management |
Sampling the most rational solution |
|
1980 - 2000 |
Information is a strategic resource that provides a competitive advantage |
Strategic Information Systems Automated offices |
Survival and prosperity of the company |
The first information systems appeared in the 50s. During these years, they were intended for processing bills and payroll, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting machines. This led to some reduction in costs and time for preparing paper documents.
60s are marked by a change in attitude towards information systems. The information obtained from them began to be used for periodic reporting on many parameters. Today, organizations needed general-purpose computer equipment capable of serving many functions, and not just processing invoices and calculating salaries, as was previously the case.
In the 70s - early 80s. Information systems are beginning to be widely used as a means of management control, supporting and accelerating the decision-making process.
By the end of the 80s. The concept of using information systems is changing again. They become a strategic source of information and are used at all levels of any organization. Information systems of this period, providing on time necessary information, help an organization achieve success in its activities, create new products and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize production of products at a low price, and much more.
The processes that ensure the operation of an information system for any purpose can be roughly represented in the form of a diagram consisting of blocks:
– input of information from external or internal sources;
– processing of input information and presenting it in a convenient form;
– output of information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;
– feedback is information processed by people of a given organization to correct input information.
An information system is defined by the following properties:
– any information system can be analyzed, built and managed based on general principles building systems;
– the information system is dynamic and developing;
– when building an information system, it is necessary to use a systematic approach;
– the output of the information system is the information on the basis of which decisions are made;
– the information system should be perceived as a human-computer information processing system.
Currently, there is an opinion about an information system as a system implemented using computer technology. Although in the general case, an information system can also be understood in a non-computer version.
To understand the operation of an information system, it is necessary to understand the essence of the problems that it solves, as well as the organizational processes in which it is included. So, for example, when determining the possibility of a computer information system to support decision-making, the structure of the management tasks being solved should be taken into account; the level of the company's management hierarchy at which the decision must be made; whether the problem being solved belongs to one or another functional area of the business; type of used information technology.
Figure 1 – Information system structure
The technology of working in a computer information system is understandable to a specialist in the non-computer field and can be successfully used to control processes professional activity and management of them.
The introduction of information systems can contribute to:
obtaining more rational options for solving management problems through the introduction of mathematical methods and intelligent systems etc.;
freeing workers from routine work due to its automation;
ensuring the reliability of information;
replacing paper storage media with magnetic disks or tape, which leads to a more rational organization of information processing on a computer and a reduction in the volume of documents on paper;
improving the structure of information flows and the document flow system in the company;
reducing costs for the production of products and services;
providing consumers with unique services;
finding new market niches;
tying buyers and suppliers to the company by providing them with various discounts and services.
The role of the management structure in the information system
General provisions
The creation and use of an information system for any organization is aimed at solving the following problems.
1. The structure of the information system, its functional purpose must be consistent with the goals of the organization. For example, in a commercial company - effective business; in a state enterprise - solving social and economic problems.
2. The information system must be controlled by people, understood and used in accordance with basic social and ethical principles.
3. Production of reliable, reliable, timely and systematized information.
Building an information system can be compared to building a house. Bricks, nails, cement and other materials placed together do not make a house. A project, land management, construction, etc. are needed for a house to appear.
Similarly, to create and use an information system, you must first understand the structure, functions and policies of the organization, management goals and decisions made, capabilities computer technology. The information system is part of the organization, and the key elements of any organization are the structure and management bodies, standard procedures, personnel, subculture.
Construction of an information system should begin with an analysis of the organization's management structure.
2 Technology for creating expert systems. Identifying the Problem Area
When developing expert systems, the rapid prototype concept is often used. Its essence is as follows: at first, it is not an expert system that is created, but its prototype, which must solve a narrow range of problems and require little time for its development. The prototype must demonstrate the suitability of the future expert system for a given subject area, check the correctness of the encoding of facts, connections and reasoning strategies of the expert. It also provides an opportunity for the knowledge engineer to involve the expert in an active role in the development of the expert system. The size of the prototype is several dozen rules.
Today, a certain technology for developing expert systems has emerged, which includes 6 stages.
Stage 1. Identification. Problems that need to be solved are identified. The development of a prototype expert system is planned, the necessary resources (time, people, computers, etc.), sources of knowledge (books, additional specialists, methods), available similar expert systems, goals (dissemination of experience, automation of routine actions, etc.) are determined. .), classes of problems to be solved, etc. The identification stage is the introduction and training of the development team. Average duration is 1-2 weeks.
At the same stage of expert system development, knowledge extraction takes place. A knowledge engineer helps an expert identify and structure the knowledge necessary for the operation of an expert system using in various ways: text analysis, dialogues, expert games, lectures, discussions, interviews, observation and others. Knowledge extraction is the knowledge engineer's obtaining a more complete understanding of the subject area and decision-making methods in it. Average duration is 1-3 months.
Stage 2. Conceptualization. The structure of the acquired knowledge about the subject area is revealed. The following are determined: terminology, a list of main concepts and their attributes, the structure of input and output information, decision-making strategy, etc. Conceptualization is the development of an informal description of knowledge about a subject area in the form of a graph, table, diagram or text that reflects the main concepts and relationships between the concepts of the subject area. The average duration of the stage is 2-4 weeks.
Stage 3. Formalization. At the formalization stage, all key concepts and relationships identified at the conceptualization stage are expressed in some formal language proposed (selected) by the knowledge engineer. Here he determines whether the available tools are suitable for solving the problem under consideration, or whether the choice of other tools is necessary, or whether original developments are required. The average duration is 1-2 months.
Stage 4. Implementation. A prototype of an expert system is created, including a knowledge base and other subsystems. On at this stage The following tools are used: programming in ordinary languages (Pascal, C, etc.), programming in specialized languages used in tasks artificial intelligence(LISP, FRL, SmallTalk, etc.), etc. The fourth stage of expert system development is, to some extent, key, since here a software package is created that demonstrates the viability of the approach as a whole. The average duration is 1-2 months.
Stage 5. Testing. The prototype is checked for the convenience and adequacy of input-output interfaces, the effectiveness of the control strategy, the quality of test examples, and the correctness of the knowledge base. Testing is identifying errors in the chosen approach, identifying errors in the implementation of the prototype, and also developing recommendations for fine-tuning the system to a production version.
Stage 6. Trial operation. The suitability of the expert system for end users is verified. Based on the results of this stage, significant modification of the expert system may be required.
The process of developing an expert system is not reduced to a strict sequence of the stages listed above. During the course of work, it is necessary to repeatedly return to earlier stages and revise the decisions made there.
The stage of identifying the problem area is determining the requirements for the developed ES, the contours of the problem area under consideration (objects, goals, subgoals, factors), allocating resources for the development of the ES.
The problem area identification stage includes determining the purpose and scope of the expert system, selecting experts and a group of knowledge engineers, allocating resources, setting and parameterizing the problems to be solved.
The start of work on creating an expert system is initiated by company leaders. Typically, the need to develop an expert system is associated with difficulties for decision makers, which affects the efficiency of the problem area. Typically, the purpose of an expert system is related to one of the following areas:
— training and consultation of inexperienced users;
— dissemination and use of the unique experience of experts;
— automation of the work of decision-making experts;
— optimization of problem solving, generation and testing of hypotheses.
After preliminary definition of the contours of the developed expert system, knowledge engineers, together with experts, carry out a more detailed formulation of problems and parameterization of the system. The main parameters of the problem area include the following:
— class of tasks to be solved (interpretation, diagnostics, correction, forecasting, planning, design, monitoring, control);
— criteria for the effectiveness of the results of solving problems (minimizing the use of resources, improving the quality of products and services, accelerating capital turnover, etc.);
— criteria for the effectiveness of the problem solving process (increasing the accuracy of decisions made, taking into account a larger number of factors, calculating a larger number of alternative options, adaptability to changes in the problem area and information needs of users, reduction in decision-making time);
— goals of the tasks being solved (choosing from alternatives, for example, choosing a supplier or synthesizing a value, for example, distributing a budget among items);
The development of information technologies can be divided into evolutionary stages, presented in Fig. 1.4.
Rice. 1.4. Stages of evolutionary development of information technologies
Based on the definition of the concept "information technology", which is understood as a process that uses a set of means and methods for collecting, processing and transmitting data to obtain information of new quality about the state of an object, process or phenomenon, we can conclude that the history of the development of information technology begins with appearance of speech. This period is considered as First step evolution of information technology.
The exchange of information between individuals in personal contact has become easier. The transfer of information between immediate generations of people (from grandfather to father and then to grandson) has also been simplified. Keepers of knowledge appeared - priests, clergy. Access access to knowledge and information was limited, so knowledge could not significantly influence production and social processes in society.
However, the transfer of information “by word of mouth” was lost with the death of a person. In addition, it was not possible to organize the transfer of information either in time or in space without human participation.
Second phase The evolution of information technology is associated with the advent of writing. It became possible to accumulate and transmit information to many generations. A written message was used as a carrier of information. Thanks to these opportunities, information technology has risen to the next stage of development.
The appearance of the first printing press and book printing in 1445 led to third stage evolution of information technology, which lasted about 500 years. Knowledge began to be replicated, accelerated information exchange between people. Information could already influence production. Machine tools, steam engines, photography, telegraph, and radio appeared.
However, even before the end of the 19th century. about 95% of the working population was employed in the sphere of material production, and in the information sphere - no more than 5%. By the middle of the 20th century. percent The population employed in the information sector has increased to approximately 30% of the total working population of developed countries, and this trend continues to increase.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. arrived fourth stage information evolution associated with the invention and dissemination of means of information transmission: radio, telegraph, telephone, etc.
It is now possible to transmit information in real time over any distance.
The appearance of the first electronic computers in 1946 led to the transition to fifth stage evolution of information technology. A recording method was created and long-term storage formalized knowledge, in which this knowledge could directly influence the operating mode of production equipment. It became possible to transmit video and audio information over long distances, and it became possible to create information funds.
During the fifth stage, the development of computers took place, which led to the consistent development of information technologies.
The main criterion for the functioning of information technologies during this period was the saving of machine resources. In this case, the goal was to maximize equipment load, which was ensured by organizing a batch mode of information processing.
Batch mode sharply increased performance use of computers, but made it difficult to debug programs and create new software products.
In the early 80s. minicomputers and third-generation computers based on large integrated circuits appeared. The main criterion for creating information technologies based on third-generation computers was saving the programmer’s labor, which was realized through the development tools programming. Appeared OS second generation, operating in three modes:
· real time;
· time sharing;
· in batch mode.
Time sharing systems allowed the specialist to work in an interactive mode, since he was allocated a time slice during which he had access to all system resources. High level languages (PL, Pascal and etc.), packages application programs (PPP), database management systems ( DBMS), design automation systems ( CAD), interactive means of communication with a computer, new programming technologies (structural and modular), appeared global networks Computers, a new scientific branch has formed - Informatics.
To automate the management of economic objects, we developed automated systems management ( ACS), automated data processing systems (ADS) and other automated processing systems economic information(SOEI).
Sixth stage The evolution of information technology began with the advent of the microprocessor and personal computer (PC).
Personal Computer is a tool that allows you to formalize and make many of the difficult-to-formalize processes of human activity widely available for automation. The main criterion for the functioning of information technologies was their use for formalizing knowledge and introducing it into all spheres of human activity.
Conversational operating systems, such as Unix, automated workstations ( AWS), expert systems, knowledge bases, local computer networks, flexible automated production, distributed data processing.
Information becomes a resource on a par with materials, energy and capital. A new economic category has emerged - national informational resources. Professional knowledge in high-tech products based on personal computers already accounts for approximately 70% of the cost, and the number of people employed in the field of information processing is 60-80% of the working population of developed countries.
During this period, they are developing information Technology for automatic formalization of knowledge for the purpose of informatization of society.
Machines with parallel data processing - transputers - appeared. Was created for them new language- parallel programming language. Portable computers appeared that were not inferior in power to large ones, keyboardless computers, as well as graphical operating systems and new information Technology: object oriented, hypertext, multimedia, CASE technology, etc.
Despite the general evolutionary development of information technologies, there are several points of view on the development of information technologies using computer technology, which are determined by various classification criteria of division presented in Fig. 1.5.
Enlarge image
Rice. 1.5. Classification of development stages
What is common to all approaches is that with the advent of the personal computer, a new stage in the development of information technology began. The main goal is to satisfy a person’s personal information needs both for the professional sphere and for the domestic sphere. In accordance with this, various signs of division are identified, according to which the stages of development of information technology are considered.
1. Type of tasks and information processing processes.
Stage 1 (60-70s) - data processing in computer centers in shared use mode. The main direction of development of information technology was the automation of operational routine human actions.
Stage 2 (since the 80s) - the creation of information technologies aimed at solving strategic objectives.
2. Problems standing in the way of informatization of society.
The 1st stage (until the end of the 60s) is characterized by the problem of processing large amounts of data in conditions of limited hardware capabilities.
The 2nd stage (until the end of the 70s) is associated with the spread of IBM/360 series computers. The problem at this stage is that the software lags behind the level of hardware development.
Stage 3 (from the beginning of the 80s) - the personal computer becomes a tool for the non-professional user, and information technology becomes a means of supporting his decision-making. Problems - maximum satisfaction of user needs and creation of an appropriate interface for working in a computer environment.
4th stage (from the beginning of the 90s) - creation modern technology interorganizational communications and information technologies. The problems of this stage are very numerous. The most significant of them are:
o development of agreements and establishment of standards, protocols for computer communications;
o organizing access to strategic information;
o organization of information protection and security.
3. The benefits that computer information technology brings.
The 1st stage (from the beginning of the 60s) is characterized by quite efficient processing information when performing routine operations with a focus on centralized collective use of computer center resources. The main criterion for assessing the effectiveness of created information technologies was the difference between the funds spent on development and the funds saved as a result of implementation. The main problem at this stage was psychological - poor interaction between users for whom information technologies were created and developers due to the difference in their views and understanding of the problems being solved. As a consequence of this problem, technologies were created that were poorly received by users and, despite their fairly large capabilities, were not used to their fullest.
The 2nd stage (from the mid-70s) is associated with the advent of personal computers. The approach to the creation of information technologies has changed - the orientation is shifting towards the individual user to support the decisions he makes. The user is interested in the ongoing development, contact is established with the developer, and mutual understanding arises between both groups of specialists. At this stage, both centralized data processing, characteristic of the first stage, and decentralized one, based on solving local problems and working with local databases at the user’s workplace, are used.
The 3rd stage (from the beginning of the 90s) is associated with the concept of analyzing strategic advantages in business and is based on the achievements of telecommunication technology of distributed information processing. Information technologies are aimed not just at increasing the efficiency of data processing and helping managers. Appropriate information technologies should help an organization survive the competition and gain an advantage.
4. Types of technology tools.
Stage 1 (until the second half of the 19th century) - “manual” information technology, the tools of which included: a pen, an inkwell, a book. Communications were carried out manually by transmitting letters, packages, dispatches by mail. The main purpose of technology is to present information in the required form.
Stage 2 (from the end of the 19th century) - “mechanical” technology, the tools of which included: a typewriter, telephone, voice recorder, equipped with more advanced means of mail delivery. The main goal of technology is to present information in the required form using more convenient means.
Stage 3 (40-60s of the XX century) - “electric” technology, the tools of which were: large computers and the corresponding software, electric typewriters, copiers, portable voice recorders.
The purpose of technology changes. The emphasis in information technology begins to shift from the form of information presentation to the formation of its content.
Stage 4 (from the beginning of the 70s) - “electronic” technology, the main tools of which are large computers and automated control systems (ACS) and information retrieval systems (IRS) created on their basis, equipped with a wide range of basic and specialized software systems.
The center of gravity of technology is shifting even more to the formation of the content side of information for the management environment of various spheres of public life, especially to the organization of analytical work. Many objective and subjective factors did not allow us to solve the tasks facing the new concept of information technology. However, experience was gained in forming the content side management information and a professional, psychological and social base has been prepared for the transition to a new stage of technology development.
Stage 5 (from the mid-80s) - “computer” (“new”) technology, the main tool of which is a personal computer with a wide range of standard software products for various purposes. At this stage, the process of personalization of automated control systems occurs, which manifests itself in the creation of decision support systems for certain specialists. Such systems have built-in elements of analysis and intelligence for different levels of management, are implemented on a personal computer and use telecommunications. In connection with the transition to a microprocessor base, technical means for household, cultural and other purposes are also undergoing significant changes. Global and local computer networks are beginning to be widely used in various fields.
^2.4. Stages of information systems development
The first IP appeared in the 50s. They were intended for processing invoices and calculating salaries, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting machines.
In the 60s information obtained from IS began to be used for periodic reporting and organizations needed computer equipment.
In the 70s and early 80s. Information systems are beginning to be widely used as a means of management control, supporting and accelerating the decision-making process.
By the end of the 80s. Information systems become a strategic source of information and are used at all levels of an organization of any profile. IP helps an organization achieve success in its activities, create new products and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize production of products at a low price, etc.
^
2.5. Classification of information systems according to functions performed (historical aspect)
Concept IS (information systems) has undergone significant changes throughout its existence. The history of the development of IP and the purposes of their use at different periods are presented in the table.
Changing the approach to the use of IS information systems
| Period of time | Conceptuseinformation | Type of information system - IS | Purpose of using IP | Functions performed |
| 1950 - 1960 | Paper flow of settlement documents | IT processing of settlement documents on electromechanical accounting machines | Increasing the speed of document processing. Simplifying invoice processing and payroll processing | |
| 1960 - 1970 | Basic assistance in preparing reports | Management IT for production information | Speeding up the reporting process | 60s EDP(electronic data processing) – online query processing, record keeping, accounting and other electronic data processing. MIS (management information systems)
–
concept of management information systems; a function has been added aimed at providing managers with the necessary information for making management decisions, compiled on the basis of data collected about the process (information
reporting
systems).
|
| 1970 -1980 | Management control of sales (sales) | Decision support systems. Systems for senior management | Development of the most rational solution | 70s DSS (decision support systems)
–
decision support systems; providing managers with specialized and interactive support for decision-making processes. |
| 1980 - 2000 | Information- a strategic resource that provides a competitive advantage | Strategic IT. Automated units | Increasing the competitiveness of the enterprise | 80s EIS (executive information systems) – providing top management with vital information, mainly about the outside world, in the moment they need it and in the format they prefer. AI (artificial intelligence) - artificial intelligence systems. ES (expert systems) – expert systems. Knowledge-based systems
-
knowledge base systems. |
In the 50s the role of information as the most important resource of an enterprise, organization, region, and society as a whole was realized; began to develop automated IS of various kinds. The first ISs were intended exclusively for processing invoices and payroll calculations, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting machines. This led to some reduction in costs and time for preparing paper documents. At first, when it became possible to process information using computer technology, the term “data processing systems” (DPS) was widespread; this term was widely used in the development of radio control systems for rockets and other space objects, in the creation of systems for collecting and processing statistical information about the state of the atmosphere, accounting and reporting information of enterprises, etc. As computer memory increased, the main attention began to be paid to the problems of organizing databases (DBs). This direction retains a certain independence at the present time and is mainly engaged in the development and development of technical and software implementation tools for data processing using various types of computers. To preserve this direction as it develops, the terms “knowledge base” and “goal base” appeared, allowing one to expand the interpretation of the problem of the actual creation and processing of a database to the tasks that are posed in the future when developing an IS.
60s are marked by a change in attitude towards IP. The information obtained from them began to be used for periodic reporting on many parameters. To achieve this, organizations needed multi-purpose computer equipment capable of serving many functions, and not just processing invoices and calculating salaries, as was previously the case.
The technical support for the systems consisted of low-power computers of 2-3 generations.
Information support (IS) consisted of arrays (files) of data, the structure of which was determined by the program in which they were used.
software - specialized application programs, for example, an accrual program wages.
IS architecture is centralized. As a rule, it was used batch processing tasks. The end user did not have direct contact with the IS; all preliminary information processing and input was carried out by IS personnel.
a strong relationship between programs and data, that is, changes in the subject area led to changes in the data structure, and this forced the programs to be redesigned.
the complexity of developing and modifying systems.
the difficulty of coordinating parts of a system developed by different people at different times.
In the 70s - early 80s. Enterprise IP is beginning to be used as a production management tool that supports and accelerates the process of preparation and decision-making. Most of the information systems of this period were intended to solve established problems, which were clearly defined at the stage of creating the system and then practically did not change. The emergence of personal computers leads to adjustments to the idea of automated control systems; from computer centers and centralization of control to distributed computing resources and decentralization of control. This approach has found its application in decision support systems (DSS), which characterize the new stage of computer IT organizational management. This reduces the load on centralized computing resources and upper levels management, which allows them to concentrate the solution of major long-term strategic tasks. The viability of any IT largely depends on users' prompt access to centralized resources and the level of information connections both horizontally and vertically within the organizational structure. At the same time, to ensure effective management of large enterprises, the idea of creating integrated automated control systems has been developed and remains relevant.
^ By the end of the 80s. The concept of using IP is changing again. They become a strategic source of information and are used at all levels of an enterprise of any profile. IT of this period, providing the necessary information on time, helps the organization achieve success in its activities, create new goods and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize the production of high-quality products at a low price, etc. The desire to overcome the shortcomings of the previous generation IP gave rise to the technology of creating and managing databases. The database is created for a group of interrelated tasks, for many users, and this makes it possible to partially solve the problems of previously created information systems. At first, DBMSs were developed for large computers, and their number did not exceed a dozen. Thanks to the advent of personal computers, database technology has become widespread, a large number of tools and DBMSs have been created for the development of information systems, which in turn has caused the emergence of a large number of applied information systems in application areas.
The main features of this generation of IP are:
the basis of the information system is the database,
the software consists of application programs and a DBMS.
technical means: computers of 3-4 generations and personal computers.
IS development tools: procedural programming languages of 3-4 generations, extended with database language (SQL, QBE).
IS architecture: the most popular are two types: personal local IS, centralized database with network access.
A big step forward was the development of the principle of a “friendly interface” in relation to the user (both the end user and the IS developer). For example, it is widely used GUI, developed assistance systems and user tips, various tools to simplify IS development: rapid application development systems (RAD systems), computer-aided IS design tools (CASE tools). By the end of the 80s, the shortcomings of this generation of systems were also revealed.
Disadvantages of information systems (IS) of this generation:
large investments in computerization of enterprises did not produce the expected effect corresponding to the costs (overhead costs increased, but there was no sharp increase in productivity);
the introduction of information systems was faced with the inertia of people, the reluctance of end users to change their usual work style and master new technologies;
Higher requirements began to be placed on the qualifications of users (knowledge of a PC, specific application programs and DBMS, the ability to constantly improve their qualifications.
Information system concept
Adding the word “information” to the concept of “system” reflects the purpose of its creation and operation. Information systems provide collection, storage, processing, search, and delivery of information necessary in the decision-making process from any area. They help analyze problems and create new products.
Information system– an interconnected set of means, methods and personnel used for storing, processing and issuing information in order to achieve a given goal.
The modern understanding of an information system assumes the use of a personal computer as the main technical means of information processing. In large organizations, along with a personal computer, the technical base of the information system may include so-called main frames (large computers), or supercomputers. In addition, the technical implementation of an information system in itself will not mean anything if the role of the person for whom the information produced is intended and without whom its receipt and presentation is impossible is not taken into account.
Under organization we will understand a community of people united by common goals and using common material and financial means to produce material and information products and services. In the text, two words will be used on an equal basis: “organization” and “company”.
It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical basis and tool for information systems. An information system is unthinkable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.
The history of the development of information systems and the purposes of their use at different periods are presented in Table. 2.2.
The first information systems appeared in the 50s. last century. During these years, they were intended for processing bills and payroll, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting machines. This led to some reduction in costs and time for preparing paper documents.
The sixties are marked by a change in attitudes towards information systems. The information obtained from them began to be used for periodic reporting on many parameters. To achieve this, organizations needed multi-purpose computer equipment capable of serving many functions, and not just processing invoices and calculating salaries, as was previously the case.
In the 70s - early 80s. Information systems are beginning to be widely used as a means of management control, supporting and accelerating the decision-making process.
By the end of the 80s. The concept of using information systems is changing again. They become a strategic source of information and are used at all levels of any organization. Information systems of this period, providing the necessary information on time, help the organization achieve success in its activities, create new goods and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize the production of products at a low price, and much more.
Table 2.2
Changing the approach to using information systems
Information system concept
A system is understood as any object that is simultaneously considered both as a single whole and as a collection of heterogeneous elements united in the interests of achieving set goals. The systems differ from each other both in composition and in main goals.
Table 1.1.
Example systems
An information system is an interconnected set of tools, methods and personnel used to store, process and issue information in order to achieve a set goal. Information systems provide collection, storage, processing, retrieval, and issuance of information necessary in the decision-making process of problems from any area. They help analyze problems and create new products. A personal computer (PC) is used as the main technical means of information processing. In large organizations, along with a personal computer, the technical base of the information system may include a mainframe or supercomputer. A special role in information systems is assigned to humans, because the technical implementation of an information system in itself will not mean anything if the role of the person for whom the information produced is intended and without whom its receipt and presentation is impossible is not taken into account.
It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical basis and tool for information systems. An information system is unthinkable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.
Stages of information systems development
Table 1.2.
Stages of information systems development
The first information systems appeared in the 50s. During these years, they were intended for processing bills and payroll, and were implemented on electromechanical accounting machines. This led to some reduction in costs and time for preparing paper documents.
60s are marked by a change in attitude towards information systems. The information obtained from them began to be used for periodic reporting on many parameters. To achieve this, organizations needed multi-purpose computer hardware that could handle many functions beyond just processing invoices and processing payroll.
In the 70s - early 80s. Information systems are beginning to be widely used as a means of management control, supporting and accelerating the decision-making process.
By the end of the 80s. the concept of using information systems is changing. They become a strategic source of information and are used at all levels of any organization. Information systems of this period help an organization achieve success in its activities, create new products and services, find new markets, secure worthy partners, organize the production of products at a low price, and much more.
1.3. Processes occurring in the information system
The processes that ensure the operation of the information system can be represented in the form of a diagram (see Fig. 1.1.).
Rice. 1.1. Processes in the information system
Processes that ensure the operation of the information system:
Entering information from external or internal sources;
Processing input information and presenting it in a convenient form;
Output information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;
Feedback- this is information processed by people of a given organization to correct input information.
An information system is defined by the following properties:
Any information system can be analyzed, built and managed on the basis of general principles for building systems;
The information system is dynamic and evolving;
When building an information system, it is necessary to use a systematic approach;
The output of the information system is information on the basis of which decisions are made;
An information system should be perceived as a human-computer information processing system.
The introduction of information systems can contribute to:
Obtaining more rational options for solving management problems through the introduction of mathematical methods and intelligent systems, etc.;
Freeing workers from routine work due to its automation;
Ensuring the reliability of information;
replacing paper storage media with magnetic disks or tapes;
Improving the structure of information flows and the document flow system in the company;
Reducing costs for the production of products and services;
Providing unique services to consumers;
Finding new market niches;
Binding buyers and suppliers to the company by providing them with various discounts and services.
1.4. Information system structure
The structure of an information system is a collection of its individual parts, called subsystems. A subsystem is a part of the system, distinguished by some characteristic.
The general structure of an information system can be considered as a set of subsystems, regardless of the scope of application, and the subsystems are called supporting. The structure of any information system can be represented by a set of supporting subsystems.
Rice. 1.2. The structure of the information system as a set of supporting subsystems
Information Support
Purpose of the subsystem information support consists in the timely generation and issuance of reliable information for making management decisions.
Information support is a set of unified system of classification and coding of information, unified documentation systems, schemes information flows, circulating in the organization, as well as the methodology for constructing databases.
Unified documentation systems are created at the state, republican, sectoral and regional levels. The main goal is to ensure comparability of indicators in various spheres of social production. But when examining most organizations, a whole range of typical shortcomings are constantly revealed:
Extremely large volume of documents for manual processing;
The same indicators are often duplicated in different documents;
Working with a large number of documents distracts specialists from solving immediate problems;
There are indicators that are created but not used, etc.
Eliminating deficiencies is one of the tasks facing the creation of information support.
Schemes of information flows reflect the routes of information flow and its volumes, the places of origin of primary information and the use of resulting information. By analyzing the structure of such schemes, it is possible to develop measures to improve the entire management system.
As an example the simplest scheme data flows, you can give a diagram that reflects all the stages of passing memo or records in the database about the hiring of an employee - from the moment of its creation until the issuance of an order on his employment.
Construction of information flow diagrams that allow identifying volumes of information and conducting its detailed analysis ensures:
Elimination of duplicate and unused information;
Classification and rational presentation of information.
The methodology for constructing databases is based on the theoretical foundations of their design.
Stage 1 - examination of all functional divisions of the company in order to: understand the specifics and structure of its activities; build a diagram of information flows; analyze the existing document flow system; determine information objects and the corresponding composition of details (characteristics) describing their properties and purpose.
Stage 2 - construction of a conceptual information and logical data model for the field of activity surveyed at stage 1. In this model, all connections between objects and their details must be established and optimized. The information logical model is the foundation on which the database will be created.
Technical support
Technical support is a set of technical means intended for the operation of an information system, as well as the corresponding documentation for these means and technological processes.
The complex of technical means consists of:
Computers of any models;
Devices for collecting, storing, processing, transmitting and outputting information;
Data transmission devices and communication lines;
Office equipment and automatic information retrieval devices;
Operating materials, etc.
Documentation documents the preliminary selection of technical means, organization of their operation, technological process data processing, technological equipment. Documentation can be divided into three groups:
System-wide, including state and industry standards for technical support;
Specialized, containing a set of techniques for all stages of hardware development;
Regulatory reference used when performing calculations for technical support.
Two main forms of organizing technical support (forms of using technical means) have emerged: centralized and partially or completely decentralized.
Centralized technical support is based on the use of large computers and computer centers in the information system.
Decentralization of technical means involves the implementation of functional subsystems on PCs directly at workplaces.
The most promising approach is a partially decentralized approach - the organization of technical support based on distributed networks consisting of a PC and a mainframe computer for storing databases common to any functional subsystems.
Math and software
Mathematical and software is a set of mathematical methods, models, algorithms and programs for implementing the goals and objectives of an information system, as well as the normal functioning of a complex of technical means.
Mathematical software includes:
Management process modeling tools;
Typical management tasks;
Methods mathematical programming, mathematical statistics, queuing theory, etc.
The software includes system-wide and special software products, as well as technical documentation.
General-system software includes complexes of user-oriented programs designed to solve typical information processing problems. They serve to expand functionality computers, control and management of data processing.
Special software is a set of programs developed during the creation of a specific information system. It includes application software packages that implement developed models of varying degrees of adequacy, reflecting the functioning of a real object.
Technical documentation for the development of software should contain a description of the tasks, a task for algorithmization, an economic and mathematical model of the problem, and test examples.
Organizational support
Organizational support is a set of methods and means that regulate the interaction of employees with technical means and among themselves in the process of developing and operating the information system.
Organizational support implements following functions:
Analysis existing system managing the organization where the IS will be used and identifying tasks to be automated;
Preparation of problems for solution on a computer, including technical specifications for the design of an IS and a feasibility study of its effectiveness;
Development of management decisions on the composition and structure of the organization, methodology for solving problems aimed at increasing the efficiency of the management system.
Legal support
Legal support is a combination legal norms, defining the creation, legal status and functioning of information systems that regulate the procedure for obtaining, transforming and using information. The main purpose of legal support is to strengthen the rule of law.
Legal support includes laws, decrees, resolutions of state authorities, orders, instructions and other regulatory documents of ministries, departments, organizations, and local authorities. Legal support can be divided into a general part that regulates the functioning of any information system, and a local part that regulates the functioning of a specific system.
Legal support for the stages of operation of the information system includes:
Information system status;
Rights, duties and responsibilities of personnel;
Legal provisions certain types of management process;
The procedure for creating and using information, etc.
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